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World War II

Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the Battle of Wanjialing, Australian 25-pounder guns during the First Battle of El Alamein, German Stuka dive bombers on the Eastern Front winter 1943–1944, US naval force in the Lingayen Gulf, Wilhelm Keitel signing the German Surrender, Soviet troops in the Battle of Stalingrad Date	1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 (6 years, 1 day) Location	Europe, Pacific, Atlantic, South-East Asia, China, Middle East, Mediterranean and Africa, briefly North America Result	Allied victory Dissolution of thethis sisdjsFfs s Emergence of the United States and the Soviet Union as superpowers Beginning of the Cold War. (more...) Belligerents Allies Soviet Union (1941–45)[nb 1] United States (1941–45) British Empire China (at war 1937–45) France[nb 2] Poland Canada Australia New Zealand South Africa Yugoslavia (1941–45) Greece (1940–45) Norway (1940–45) Netherlands (1940–45) Belgium (1940–45) chutiya Brazil (1942–45) ...and others Client and puppet states Philippines (1941–45) Mongolia (1941–45) ...and others Axis Germany Japan (at war 1937–45) Italy (1940–43) Hungary (1940–45) Romania (1941–44) Bulgaria (1941–44) Thailand (1942–45) Co-belligerents Finland (1941–44) Iraq (1941) Client and puppet states Manchukuo Italian Social Republic (1943–45) Independent State of Croatia (1941–45) Slovakia ...and others Commanders and leaders Allied leaders Joseph Stalin Franklin D. Roosevelt Winston Churchill Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle ...and others Axis leaders Adolf Hitler Hirohito C Benito Mussolini ...and others Casualties and losses Military dead: Over 16,000,000 Civilian dead: Over 45,000,000 Total dead: Over 61,000,000 (1937–45) ...further details	Military dead: Over 8,000,000 Civilian dead: Over 4,000,000 Total dead: Over 12,000,000 (1937–45) ...further details World War II series v t e Precursors Asian events · European events · Timeline [show] v t e Campaigns of World War II 1939 · 1940 · 1941 · 1942 · 1943 · 1944 · 1945 Eastern front · Western Front · Pacific War · Battles · Mediterranean, Middle East and African Campaigns · Commanders Technology · Military operations · Manhattan Project Air warfare of World War II · Home front · Collaboration · Resistance Aftermath Casualties · Further effects · War crimes · Japanese war crimes · Consequences of Nazism Depictions World War II articles Alphabetical index: 0-9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Campaigns |  Countries  |  Equipment Lists |  Outline  |  Timeline  |  Portal  |  Category

[show] v t e History of World War II by country [show] v t e World War II World War II, or the Second World War (often abbreviated as WWII or WW2), was a global war that was under way by 1939 and ended in 1945. It involved a vast majority of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies it is the estsodsfd

erally said to have begun on 1 September 1939, with the invasion of Poland by Germany, and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by France and most of the countries of the British Empire and Commonwealth. Germany set out to establish a large empire in Europe. From late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or subdued much of continental Europe; amid Nazi-Soviet agreements, the nominally neutral Soviet Union fully or partially invaded, occupied and annexed territories of its six European neighbours, including Poland. Britain and the Commonwealth remained the only major force continuing the fight against the Axis, with battles taking place in North Africa as well as the long-running Battle of the Atlantic. In June 1941, the European Axis launched an invasion of the Soviet Union, giving a start to the largest land theatre of war in history, which tied down the major part of the Axis' military forces. In December 1941, Japan, which aimed to dominate Asia and joined the Axis, attacked the United States and European possessions in the Pacific Ocean, quickly conquering much of the West Pacific. Tmy name is ankit and i will kick all th e1@!#@#$##$%# surrender. The total victory of the Allies over the Axis in 1945 ended the conflict. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world. The United Nations (UN) was established to foster international cooperation and prevent future conflicts. The great powers that were the victors of the war—the United States, Soviet Union, China, Britain, and France—became the permanent members of the UN's Security Council.[3] The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers started to decline, while the decolonisation of Asia and Africa began. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to stabilise postwar relations. Contents [hide] 1 Chronology 2 Background 3 Pre-war events 3.1 Invasion of Ethiopia 3.2 Spanish Civil War 3.3 Japanese invasion of China 3.4 Japanese invasion of the Soviet Union and Mongolia 3.5 European occupations and agreements 4 Course of the war 4.1 War breaks out in Europe 4.2 Axis advances 4.3 The war becomes global 4.4 Axis advance stalls 4.5 Allies gain momentum 4.6 Allies close in 4.7 Axis collapse, Allied victory 5 Aftermath 6 Impact 6.1 Casualties and war crimes 6.2 Concentration camps and slave work 6.3 Home fronts and production 6.4 Occupation 6.5 Advances in technology and warfare 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links Chronology

See also: Timeline of World War II The start of the war is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland; Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. Other dates for the beginning of war include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937.[4][5] Others follow British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and the two wars merged in 1941. This article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935.[6] The exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It has been suggested that the war ended at the armistice of 14 August 1945 (V-J Day), rather than the formal surrender of Japan (2 September 1945); in some European histories, it ended on V-E Day (8 May 1945). However, the Treaty of Peace with Japan was not signed until 1951,[7] and that with Germany not until 1990.[8] Background

Main article: Causes of World War II World War I radically altered the political map, with the defeat of the Central Powers, including Austria-Hungary, Germany and the Ottoman Empire; and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia. Meanwhile, existing victorious Allies such as France, Belgium, Italy, Greece and Romania gainno one know

d ssdsdsdsdsdsd Nazis rose and, in 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany. In the aftermath of the Reichstag fire, Hitler created a totalitarian single-party state led by the Nazis.[12] The Kuomintang (this is true s then fought several battles, in Shanghai, Rehe and Hebei, until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria, and Chahar and Suiyuan.[16]

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resent a united front to oppose Japan.[25] Pre-war events

Invasion of Ethiopia Main article: Second Italo-Abyssinian War The Second Italo–Abyssinian War was a brief colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war was fought between the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy (Regno d'Italia) and the armed forces of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia). The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI); in addition, it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did nothing when the former clearly violated the League's own Article X.[26] Spanish Civil War Main article: Spanish Civil War

The ruins of Guernica after the bombing. Germany and Italy lent support to the Nationalist insurrection led by general Francisco Franco in Spain. The Soviet Union supported the existing government, the Spanish Republic, which showed leftist tendencies. Both Germany and the USSR used this proxy war as an opportunity to test improved weapons and tactics. The deliberate Bombing of Guernica by the German Condor Legion in April 1937 contributed to widespread concerns that the next major war would include extensive terror bombing attacks on civilians.[27][28] Japanese invasion of China Main article: Second Sino-Japanese War this to inform you that he is vcjsdds.[182] This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month.[183] On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives, thereby dispelling any hopes of the German Army for victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk heralded the downfall of German superiority,[184] giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front.[185][186] The Germans attempted to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther-Wotan line, however, the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and by the Lower Dnieper Offensives.[187] In early September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland, following an Italian armistice with the Allies.[188] Germany responded by disarming Italian forces, seizing military control of Italian areas,[189] and creating a series of defensive lines.[190] German special forces then rescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic.[191] The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November.[192] German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign.[193] In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo[194] and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran.[195] The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory,[194] while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat.[195]

British troops firing a mortar during the Battle of Imphal, North East India, 1944. From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde, the Chinese forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition, while awaiting Allied relief.[196][197] In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and attempted to outflank it with landings at Anzio.[198] By the end of January, a major Soviet offensive expelled German forces from the Leningrad region,[199] ending the longest and most lethal siege in history. The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region.[200] By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea, largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and made incursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis troops.[201] The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, on 4 June Rome was captured.[202] The Allies experienced mixed fortunes in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against British positions in Assam, India,[203] and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima.[204] In May 1944, British forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma,[204] and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina.[205] The second Japanese invasion attempted to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields.[206] By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a renewed attack against Changsha in the Hunan province.[207] Allies close in

Allied Invasion of Normandy, 6 June 1944

Red Army personnel and equipment crossing a river during the northern Summer of 1944 On 6 June 1944 (known as D-Day), after three years of Soviet pressure,[208] the Western Allies invaded northern France. After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France.[209] These landings were successful, and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France. Paris was liberated by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces on 25 August[210] and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in Western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spear-headed by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands ended with a failure.[211] After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, unsuccessfully trying to cross the Rur river in a large offensive. In Italy the Allied advance also slowed down, when they ran into the last major German defensive line. On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus (known as "Operation Bagration") that resulted in the almost complete destruction of the German Army Group Centre.[212] Soon after that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The successful advance of Soviet troops prompted resistance forces in Poland to initiate several uprisings, though the largest of these, in Warsaw, as well as a Slovak Uprising in the south, were not assisted by the Soviets and were put down by German forces.[213] The Red Army's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side.[214]

Polish insurgents during the Warsaw Uprising. In September 1944, Soviet Red Army troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of the German Army Groups E and F in Greece, Albania and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off.[215] By this point, the Communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito, who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and were engaged in delaying efforts against the German forces further south. In northern Serbia, the Red Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945.[216] In contrast with impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans, the bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to the signing of Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions,[217][218] with a subsequent shift to the Allied side by Finland. By the start of July, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam, pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River[219] while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In China, the Japanese were having greater successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August.[220] Soon after, they further invaded the province of Guangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November[221] and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by the middle of December.[222] In the Pacific, American forces continued to press back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944 they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands, and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of Japanese Prime Minister Tōjō and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory during the Battle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history.[223] Axis collapse, Allied victory

American and Soviet troops meet in April 1945, east of the Elbe River. On 16 December 1944, Germany attempted its last desperate measure for success on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes to attempt to split the Western Allies, encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and capture their primary supply port at Antwerp in order to prompt a political settlement.[224] By January, the offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled.[224] In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Soviets attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia.[225] On 4 February, U.S., British, and Soviet leaders met for the Yalta Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany,[226] and when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan.[227] In February, the Soviets invaded Silesia and Pomerania, while Western Allies invaded Western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr, encircling the German Army Group B,[228] while the Soviets advanced to Vienna. In early April, the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across Western Germany, while Soviet forces stormed Berlin in late April; the two forces linked up on Elbe river on 25 April. On 30 April 1945, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Third Reich.[229]

A devastated Berlin street in the city centre post Battle of Berlin, taken 3 July 1945. Several changes in leadership occurred during this period. On 12 April, U.S. President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Harry Truman. Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April.[230] Two days later, Hitler committed suicide, and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz.[231] German forces surrendered in Italy on 29 April. The German instrument of surrender was signed on 7 May in Rheims,[232] and ratified on 8 May in Berlin.[233] German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May.[234] In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines, clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and captured Manila in March following a battle which reduced the city to ruins. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war.[235]

Atomic explosion at Nagasaki, 9 August 1945. In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo, overrunning the oilfields there. British, American and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May.[236] Chinese forces started to counterattack in Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June.[237] American bombers destroyed Japanese cities, and American submarines cut off Japanese imports.[238] On 11 July, the Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany. They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany,[239] and reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of all Japanese forces by Japan, specifically stating that "the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction".[240] During this conference the United Kingdom held its general election, and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister.[241] When Japan continued to ignore the Potsdam terms, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in early August. Between the two bombs, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, invaded Japanese-held Manchuria, and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force.[242][243] The Red Army also captured Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands. On 15 August 1945 Japan surrendered, with the surrender documents finally signed aboard the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war.[232] Aftermath

Main article: Aftermath of World War II

The Supreme Commanders on 5 June 1945 in Berlin: Bernard Montgomery, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Georgy Zhukov and Jean de Lattre de Tassigny The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany. The former became a neutral state, non-aligned with any political bloc. The latter was divided onto western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the USSR, accordingly. A denazification program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society.[244] Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory, the eastern territories: Silesia, Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland; East Prussia was divided between Poland and the USSR, followed by the expulsion of the 9 million Germans from these provinces, as well as of 3 million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia, to Germany. By the 1950s, every fifth West German was a refugee from the east. The USSR also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon line (from which 2 million Poles were expelled),[245] Eastern Romania,[246][247] and part of eastern Finland[248] and three Baltic states.[249][250]

Prime Minister Winston Churchill gives the "Victory" sign to crowds in London on Victory in Europe Day. In an effort to maintain peace,[251] the Allies formed the United Nations, which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945,[252] and adopted The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, as a common standard for all member nations.[253] The great powers that were the victors of the war—the United States, Soviet Union, China, Britain, and France—formed the permanent members of the UN's Security Council.[254] The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state, the Russian Federation, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over,[255] Germany had been de facto divided, and two independent states, Federal Republic of Germany and German Democratic Republic[256] were created within the borders of Allied and Soviet occupation zones, accordingly. The rest of Europe was also divided onto Western and Soviet spheres of influence.[257] Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere, which led to establishment of Communist led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, Poland, Hungary,[258] Czechoslovakia,[259] Romania, Albania,[260] and East Germany became Soviet Satellite states. Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy causing tension with the USSR.[261] Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact;[262] the long period of political tensions and military competition between them, the Cold War, would be accompanied by unprecedented arms race and proxy wars.[263]

World map of colonization at the end of the Second World War in 1945. With the end of the war, the wars of national liberation ensued, leading to the creation of Israel, the often bloody decolonization of Asia and (somewhat later) of Africa. In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administrated Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands.[264] Korea, formerly under Japanese rule, was divided and occupied by the US in the South and the Soviet Union in the North between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War.[265] In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces were victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949.[266] In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab-Israeli conflict. While European colonial powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation.[267][268] The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The US emerged much richer than any other nation; it had a baby boom and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers and it dominated the world economy.[269][270] The UK and US pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany in the years 1945–1948.[271] Due to international trade interdependencies this led to European economic stagnation and delayed European recovery for several years.[272][273] Recovery began with the mid 1948 currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by the liberalization of European economic policy that the Marshall plan (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused.[274][275] The post 1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle.[276] Also the Italian[277][278] and French economies rebounded.[279] By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin,[280] and continued relative economic decline for decades.[281] The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era.[282] Japan experienced incredibly rapid economic growth, becoming one of the most powerful economies in the world by the 1980s.[283] China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952.[284] Impact

Casualties and war crimes Main articles: World War II casualties and War crimes during World War II

World War II deaths Estimates for the total casualties of the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded. Most suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about 20 million soldiers and 40 million civilians.[285][286][287] Many civilians died because of disease, starvation, massacres, bombing and deliberate genocide. The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people during the war,[288] including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. The largest portion of military dead were ethnic Russians (5,756,000), followed by ethnic Ukrainians (1,377,400).[289] One of every four Soviet citizens was killed or wounded in that war.[290] Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany.[291] Of the total deaths in World War II approximately 85 percent—mostly Soviet and Chinese—were on the Allied side and 15 percent on the Axis side. Many of these deaths were caused by war crimes committed by German and Japanese forces in occupied territories. An estimated 11[292] to 17[293] million civilians died as a direct or indirect result of Nazi ideological policies, including the systematic genocide of around six million Jews during The Holocaust along with a further five million Roma, homosexuals as well as Slavs and other ethnic and minority groups.[294] Roughly 7.5 million civilians died in China under Japanese occupation,[295] and hundreds of thousands (varying estimates) of ethnic Serbs, along with gypsies and Jews, were murdered by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in what would become Yugoslavia, with retribution-related killings of Croatian civilians later in the war.[296]

Chinese civilians to be buried alive by Japanese soldiers. The best-known Japanese atrocity was the Nanking Massacre, in which several hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered.[297] Between 3 million to more than 10 million civilians, mostly Chinese, were killed by the Japanese occupation forces.[298] Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported 2.7 million casualties occurred during the Sankō Sakusen. General Yasuji Okamura implemented the policy in Heipei and Shantung.[299] The Axis forces employed limited biological and chemical weapons. The Italians used mustard gas during their conquest of Abyssinia,[300] while the Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during their invasion and occupation of China (see Unit 731)[301][302] and in early conflicts against the Soviets.[303] Both the Germans and Japanese tested such weapons against civilians[304] and, in some cases, on prisoners of war.[305] While many of the Axis's acts were brought to trial in the world's first international tribunals,[306] incidents caused by the Allies were not. Examples of such Allied actions include population transfers in the Soviet Union and Japanese American internment in the United States; the Operation Keelhaul,[307] expulsion of Germans after World War II, mass rape of German women by Soviet Red Army; the Soviet Union's Katyn massacre, for which Germans faced counter-accusations of responsibility. Large numbers of famine deaths can also be partially attributed to the war, such as the Bengal famine of 1943 and the Vietnamese famine of 1944–45.[308] It has been suggested by some historians[who?] that the mass-bombing of civilian areas in enemy territory, including Tokyo and most notably the German cities of Dresden, Hamburg and Cologne by Western Allies, which resulted in the destruction of more than 160 cities and the deaths of more than 600,000 German civilians be considered as war crimes.[309] Concentration camps and slave work Further information: The Holocaust, Consequences of Nazism, Japanese war crimes, and Allied war crimes during World War II The Nazis were responsible for The Holocaust, the killing of approximately six million Jews (overwhelmingly Ashkenazim), as well as two million ethnic Poles and four million others who were deemed "unworthy of life" (including the disabled and mentally ill, Soviet POWs, homosexuals, Freemasons, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Romani) as part of a programme of deliberate extermination. About 12 million, most of whom were Eastern Europeans, were employed in the German war economy as forced labourers.[310]

Dead bodies in the Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp after liberation, possibly political prisoners or Soviet POWs In addition to Nazi concentration camps, the Soviet gulags (labour camps) led to the death of citizens of occupied countries such as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, as well as German prisoners of war (POWs) and even Soviet citizens who had been or were thought to be supporters of the Nazis.[311] Sixty percent of Soviet POWs of the Germans died during the war.[312] Richard Overy gives the number of 5.7 million Soviet POWs. Of those, 57 percent died or were killed, a total of 3.6 million.[313] Soviet ex-POWs and repatriated civilians were treated with great suspicion as potential Nazi collaborators, and some of them were sent to the GULAG upon being checked by the NKVD.[314] Japanese prisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27.1 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent),[315] seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians.[316] While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from United States were released after the surrender of Japan, the number for the Chinese was only 56.[317] According to historian Zhifen Ju, at least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board, or Kōain, for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million.[318] The U.S. Library of Congress estimates that in Java, between 4 and 10 million romusha (Japanese: "manual laborers"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese laborers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in South East Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java.[319]

Mistreated and starved prisoners in the Mauthausen camp, Austria, 1945 On 19 February 1942, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, interning thousands of Japanese, Italians, German Americans, and some emigrants from Hawaii who fled after the bombing of Pearl Harbor for the duration of the war. The U.S. and Canadian governments interned 150,000 Japanese-Americans,[320][321] In addition, 14,000 German and Italian residents of the U.S. who had been assessed as being security risks were also interned.[322] In accordance with the Allied agreement made at the Yalta Conference millions of POWs and civilians were used as forced labor by the Soviet Union.[323] In Hungary's case, Hungarians were forced to work for the Soviet Union until 1955.[324] Home fronts and production Main articles: Military production during World War II and Home front during World War II

Allied to Axis GDP ratio

The Soviet T-34, the most-produced tank of the war, going to the front. Over 57,000 T-34s had been built in the USSR by 1945. In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis (Germany and Italy); if colonies are included, it then gives the Allies more than a 5:1 advantage in population and nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP.[325] In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan, but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this is reduced to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included.[325] Though the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies, as the war largely settled into one of attrition.[326] While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis is often attributed to the Allies having more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force,[327][328] Allied strategic bombing,[329][330] and Germany's late shift to a war economy[331] contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and were not equipped to do so.[332][333] To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers;[334] Germany used about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe,[310] while Japan pressed more than 18 million people in Far East Asia.[318][319] Occupation Main articles: Collaboration with the Axis Powers during World War II, Resistance during World War II, and German-occupied Europe In Europe, occupation came under two very different forms. In Western, Northern and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichmarks (27.8 billion US Dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the sizable plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods.[335] Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on.[336]

Soviet partisans hanged by German forces in January 1943 In the East, the much hoped for bounties of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders.[337] Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged excessive brutality against what it considered to be the "inferior people" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass executions.[338] Although resistance groups did form in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the East[339] or the West[340] until late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples.[341] Although Japanese forces were originally welcomed as liberators from European domination in many territories, their excessive brutality turned local public opinions against them within weeks.[342] During Japan's initial conquest it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m3) of oil (~5.5×105 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces, and by 1943 was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (~6.8×106 t), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate.[342] Advances in technology and warfare Main article: Technology during World War II Aircraft were used for reconnaissance, as fighters, bombers and ground-support, and each role was advanced considerably. Innovation included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment and personnel);[343] and of strategic bombing (the bombing of civilian areas to destroy industry and morale).[344] Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, such as the German 88 mm gun. The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered, and though late introduction meant it had little impact, it led to jets becoming standard in worldwide air forces.[345]

U-995 Type VIIC at the German navy memorial at Laboe. Between 1939 and 1945, 3,500 Allied merchant ships were sunk at a cost of 783 German U-boats. Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare, most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines. Although at the start of the war aeronautical warfare had relatively little success, actions at Taranto, Pearl Harbor, the South China Sea and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship in place of the battleship.[346][347][348] In the Atlantic, escort carriers proved to be a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap.[349] Carriers were also more economical than battleships due to the relatively low cost of aircraft[350] and their not requiring to be as heavily armoured.[351] Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War[352] were anticipated by all sides to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics.[353] Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh light, hedgehog, squid, and homing torpedoes proved victorious. Land warfare changed from the static front lines of World War I to increased mobility and combined arms. The tank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon.[354] In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I,[355] and advances continued throughout the war in increasing speed, armour and firepower.

Boeing B-17E in flight. The Allies had lost 160,000 airmen and 33,700 planes during the air war over Europe.[356] At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications.[357] This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France.[354] Many means of destroying tanks, including indirect artillery, anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled), mines, short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were utilised.[357] Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces,[358] and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I.[359] The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG42, and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings.[359] The assault rifle, a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard postwar infantry weapon for most armed forces.[360][361] Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security presented by using large codebooks for cryptography with the use of ciphering machines, the most well known being the German Enigma machine.[362] SIGINT (signals intelligence) was the countering process of decryption, with the notable examples being the Allied breaking of Japanese naval codes[363] and British Ultra, which was derived from methodology given to Britain by the Polish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding Enigma for seven years before the war.[364] Another aspect of military intelligence was the use of deception, which the Allies used to great effect, such as in operations Mincemeat and Bodyguard.[363][365] Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers (Z3, Colossus, and ENIAC), guided missiles and modern rockets, the Manhattan Project's development of nuclear weapons and the development of artificial harbours and oil pipelines under the English Channel.[366] See also

World War II portal War portal See more Wikipedia articles related to World War II. Main article: Outline of World War II Air warfare of World War II Atlas of the World Battle Fronts Effects of World War II List of World War II battles List of World War II military operations World War II in popular culture Documentaries Apocalypse: The Second World War (2009), a six-part French documentary by Daniel Costelle and Isabelle Clarke about World War II Battlefield (TV series) documentary series initially issued in 1994–5 that explores many important World War II battles BBC History of World War II, a television series, initially issued from 1989 to 2005. The World at War (1974), a 26-part Thames Television series that covers most aspects of World War II from many points of view. It includes interviews with many key figures including Karl Dönitz, Albert Speer, and Anthony Eden. Notes

Footnotes ^ 23 August 1939, the USSR and Germany sign non-aggression pact, secretly dividing Eastern Europe into spheres of influence. USSR armistice with Japan 16 September 1939; invades Poland 17 September 1939; attacks Finland 30 September 1939; forcibly incorporates Baltic States June 1940; takes eastern Romania 4 July 1940. 22 June 1941, USSR is invaded by European Axis; USSR aligns with countries fighting Axis. ^ After the fall of the Third Republic in 1940, the de facto government was the Vichy Regime. It conducted pro-Axis policies until November 1942 while remaining formally neutral. The Free French Forces, based out of London, were recognized by all Allies as the official government in September 1944. Citations ^ Sommerville, Donald (2008). The Complete Illustrated History of World War Two: An Authoritative Account of the Deadliest Conflict in Human History with Analysis of Decisive Encounters and Landmark Engagements. Lorenz Books. p. 5. ISBN 0-7548-1898-5. ^ Barrett, David P; Shyu, Lawrence N (2001). China in the anti-Japanese War, 1937–1945: politics, culture and society. Volume 1 of Studies in modern Chinese history. New York: Peter Lang. p. 6. ISBN 0-8204-4556-8. ^ The UN Security Council, retrieved 5-15-2012 ^ Chickering, Roger (2006) (Google books). A World at Total War: Global Conflict and the Politics of Destruction, 1937–1945. Cambridge University Press. p. 64. ISBN 0-275-98710-8. Retrieved 15 November 2009. ^ Fiscus, James W (2007) (Google books). Critical Perspectives on World War II. Rosen Publishing Group. p. 44. ISBN 1-4042-0065-7. Retrieved 15 November 2009. ^ (Ben-Horin, Eliahu (1943). The Middle East: Crossroads of History. W. W. Norton & Co. p. 169; Taylor, A. J. P (1979). How Wars Begin. Hamilton. p. 124. ISBN 0241100178; Yisreelit, Hevrah Mizrahit (1965). Asian and African Studies, p. 191). For 1941 see (Taylor, A. J. P (1961). The Origins of the Second World War. Hamilton. p. vii; Kellogg, William O (2003). American History the Easy Way. Barron's Educational Series. p. 236 ISBN 0764119737). There also exists the viewpoint that both World War I and World War II are part of the same "European Civil War" or "Second Thirty Years War". (Canfora, Luciano; Jones, Simon (2006). Democracy in Europe: A History of an Ideology. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 155. ISBN 1405111313; Prin, Gwyn (2002). The Heart of War: On Power, Conflict and Obligation in the Twenty-First Century. Routledge. p. 11. ISBN 0415369606). ^ Masaya, Shiraishi (1990). Japanese relations with Vietnam, 1951–1987. SEAP Publications. p. 4. ISBN 0-87727-122-4. ^ "German-American Relations – Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany (two plus four)". Usa.usembassy.de. Retrieved 29 January 2012. ^ Kantowicz 1999, p. 149 ^ Davies 2008, pp. 134–140 ^ Shaw 2000, p. 35 ^ Bullock 1962, p. 265 ^ Preston 1998, p. 104 ^ Myers 1987, p. 458 ^ Smith 2004, p. 28 ^ Coogan, Anthony (July 1993). 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ISBN 0-8018-6445-3. ^ Weinberg 1995, p. 339 ^ Gilbert, Adrian (2003). The Encyclopedia of Warfare: From Earliest Times to the Present Day. Globe Pequot. p. 259. ISBN 1-59228-027-7. ^ Swain, Bruce (2001). A Chronology of Australian Armed Forces at War 1939–45. Allen & Unwin. p. 197. ISBN 1-86508-352-6. ^ Hane, Mikiso (2001). Modern Japan: A Historical Survey. Westview Press. p. 340. ISBN 0-8133-3756-9. ^ Marston, Daniel (2005). The Pacific War Companion: From Pearl Harbor to Hiroshima. Osprey Publishing. p. 111. ISBN 1-84176-882-0. ^ Brayley, Martin J (2002). The British Army, 1939–45: The Far East. Osprey Publishing. p. 9. ISBN 1-84176-238-5. ^ Read, Anthony (2004). The Devil's Disciples: Hitler's Inner Circle. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 764. ISBN 0-393-04800-4. ^ Davies, Norman (2006). Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory. Macmillan. p. 100. ISBN 0-333-69285-3. ^ Badsey, Stephen (2000). The Hutchinson Atlas of World War II Battle Plans: Before and After. Taylor & Francis. pp. 235–36. ISBN 1-57958-265-6. ^ Black, Jeremy (2003). World War Two: A Military History. Routledge. p. 119. ISBN 0-415-30534-9. ^ Gilbert, Sir Martin (2004). The Second World War: A Complete History. Macmillan. pp. 397–400. ISBN 0-8050-7623-9. ^ Shukman, Harold (2001). Stalin's Generals. Phoenix Press. p. 142. ISBN 1-84212-513-3. ^ Gannon, James (2002). Stealing Secrets, Telling Lies: How Spies and Codebreakers Helped Shape the Twentieth Century. Brassey's. p. 76. ISBN 1-57488-473-5. ^ Paxton, Robert O (1972). Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order, 1940–1944. Knopf. p. 313. ISBN 0-394-47360-4. ^ Rich, Norman (1992). Hitler's War Aims: Ideology, the Nazi State, and the Course of Expansion. Norton. p. 178. ISBN 0-393-00802-9. ^ Penrose, Jane (2004). The D-Day Companion. Osprey Publishing. p. 129. ISBN 1-84176-779-4. ^ Neillands, Robin (2005). The Dieppe Raid: The Story of the Disastrous 1942 Expedition. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-34781-5. ^ Keegan, John (1997). The Second World War. London: Pimlico. p. 277. ISBN 0-7126-7348-2. ^ Thomas, David Arthur (1988). A Companion to the Royal Navy. Harrap. p. 265. ISBN 0-245-54572-7. ^ Thomas, Nigel; Andrew, Stephen (1998). German Army 1939–1945 (2): North Africa & Balkans. Osprey Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 1-85532-640-X. ^ a b Ross, Steven T (1997). American War Plans, 1941–1945: The Test of Battle. Frank Cass & Co. p. 38. ISBN 0-7146-4634-2. ^ Bonner, Kit; Bonner, Carolyn (2001). Warship Boneyards. MBI Publishing Company. p. 24. ISBN 0-7603-0870-5. ^ Collier, Paul (2003). The Second World War (4): The Mediterranean 1940–1945. Osprey Publishing. p. 11. ISBN 1-84176-539-2. ^ Thompson, John Herd; Randall, Stephen J (1994). Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies. University of Georgia Press. p. 164. ISBN 0-8203-2403-5. ^ Kennedy, David M (1999). Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945. Oxford University Press. p. 610. ISBN 0-19-503834-7. ^ Rottman, Gordon L (2002). World War II Pacific Island Guide: A Geo-Military Study. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 228. ISBN 0-313-31395-4. ^ Glantz, David M. (September 1986). "Soviet Defensive Tactics at Kursk, July 1943". CSI Report No. 11. (Combined Arms Research Library). OCLC 278029256. Archived from the original on 6 March 2008. Retrieved 17 February 2010. ^ Glantz, David M (1989). Soviet military deception in the Second World War. Routledge. pp. 149–59. ISBN 978-0-7146-3347-3. ^ Kershaw, Ian (2001). Hitler, 1936–1945: Nemesis. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 592. ISBN 0-393-32252-1. ^ O'Reilly, Charles T (2001). Forgotten Battles: Italy's War of Liberation, 1943–1945. Lexington Books. p. 32. ISBN 0-7391-0195-1. ^ Bellamy, Chris T (2007). Absolute war: Soviet Russia in the Second World War. BAlfred A. Knopf. p. 595. ISBN 0-375-41086-4. ^ O'Reilly, Charles T (2001). Forgotten Battles: Italy's War of Liberation, 1943–1945. Lexington Books. p. 35. ISBN 0-7391-0195-1. ^ Healy, Mark (1992). Kursk 1943: The tide turns in the East. Osprey Publishing. p. 90. ISBN 1-85532-211-0. ^ Glantz 2001, pp. 50–55 ^ McGowen, Tom (2002). Assault From The Sea: Amphibious Invasions in the Twentieth Century. Twenty-First Century Books. pp. 43–44. ISBN 0-7613-1811-9. ^ Mazower, Mark (2009). Hitler's Empire : Nazi Rule in Occupied Europe. London: Penguin. p. 362. ISBN 978-0-14-101192-9. ^ Hart, Stephen; Hart, Russell; Hughes, Matthew (2000). The German Soldier in World War II. MBI Publishing Company. p. 151. ISBN 0-7603-0846-2. ^ Blinkhorn, Martin (1984). Mussolini and Fascist Italy. Methuen & Co. p. 52. ISBN 0-415-10231-6. ^ Read, Anthony; Fisher, David (1992). The Fall of Berlin. Hutchinson. p. 129. ISBN 0-09-175337-6. ^ Padfield, Peter (1998). War Beneath the Sea : Submarine Conflict During World War II (paperback. ed.). New York: John Wiley. pp. 335–336. ISBN 0-471-24945-9. ^ a b Iriye, Akira (1981). Power and culture: the Japanese-American war, 1941–1945. Harvard University Press. p. 154. ISBN 0-674-69582-8. ^ a b Polley, Martin (2000). A-Z of modern Europe since 1789. Taylor & Francis. p. 148. ISBN 0-415-18598-X. ^ ed. Hsiung, James C. and Steven I. Levine China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan 1937–1945, p.161 ^ Hsu Long-hsuen and Chang Ming-kai (1971) History of The Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) 2nd Ed. Translated by Wen Ha-hsiung. Chung Wu Publishing. pp.412–416, Map 38 ^ Weinberg 1995, pp. 660–661 ^ Glantz, David M (2001). The siege of Leningrad, 1941–1944: 900 days of terror. Zenith Imprint. pp. 166–69. ISBN 0-7603-0941-8. ^ Glantz, David M (2002). The Battle for Leningrad: 1941–1944. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1208-4. ^ Chubarov, Alexander (2001). Russia's Bitter Path to Modernity: A History of the Soviet and Post-Soviet Eras. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 122. ISBN 0-8264-1350-1. ^ Havighurst, Alfred F (1962). Britain in Transition: The Twentieth Century. The University of Chicago Press. p. 344. ISBN 0-226-31971-7. ^ Lightbody, Bradley (2004). The Second World War: Ambitions to Nemesis. Routledge. p. 224. ISBN 0-415-22404-7. ^ a b Zeiler, Thomas W (2004). Unconditional Defeat: Japan, America, and the End of World War II. Scholarly Resources. p. 60. ISBN 0-8420-2991-5. ^ Craven, Wesley Frank; Cate, James Lea (1953). The Army Air Forces in World War II, Volume Five—The Pacific, Matterhorn to Nagasaki. Chicago University Press. p. 207. ^ Hsiung, James Chieh; Levine, Steven I (1992). China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 1937–1945. M.E. Sharpe. p. 163. ISBN 1-56324-246-X. ^ Coble, Parks M (2003). Chinese Capitalists in Japan's New Order: The Occupied Lower Yangzi, 1937–1945. University of California Press. p. 85. ISBN 0-520-23268-2. ^ Rees, Laurence (2009). World War Two Behind Closed Doors, BBC Books, p. 406-7. "Stalin always believed that Britain and America were delaying the second front so that the Soviet Union would bear the brunt of the war" ^ Weinberg 1995, p. 695 ^ Badsey, Stephen (1990). Normandy 1944: Allied Landings and Breakout. Osprey Publishing. p. 91. ISBN 0-85045-921-4. ^ Dear, I. C. B.; Foot, M. R. D, eds. (2002). "Market-Garden". Oxford Companion to World War II. Oxford University Press. p. 877. ISBN 0-19-860446-7. ^ The operation "was the most calamitous defeat of all the German armed forces in World War II" (Zaloga, Steven J (1996). Bagration 1944: The destruction of Army Group Centre. Osprey Publishing. p. 7. ISBN 1-85532-478-4.) ^ Berend, Ivan T. (1999). Central and Eastern Europe, 1944–1993: Detour from the Periphery to the Periphery. Cambridge University Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-521-55066-1. ^ "Armistice Negotiations and Soviet Occupation". US Library of Congress. Retrieved 14 November 2009. "The coup speeded the Red Army's advance, and the Soviet Union later awarded Michael the Order of Victory for his personal courage in overthrowing Antonescu and putting an end to Romania's war against the Allies. Western historians uniformly point out that the Communists played only a supporting role in the coup; postwar Romanian historians, however, ascribe to the Communists the decisive role in Antonescu's overthrow" ^ Hastings, Max; Paul Henry, Collier (2004). The Second World War: a world in flames. Osprey Publishing. pp. 223–4. ISBN 1-84176-830-8. ^ Wiest, Andrew A; Barbier, M. K (2002). Strategy and Tactics Infantry Warfare. Zenith Imprint. pp. 65–6. ISBN 0-7603-1401-2. ^ Wiktor, Christian L (1998). Multilateral Treaty Calendar – 1648–1995. Kluwer Law International. p. 426. ISBN 90-411-0584-0. ^ Newton, Steven H (1995). Retreat from Leningrad : Army Group North, 1944/1945. Atglen, Philadelphia: Schiffer Books. ISBN 0-88740-806-0. ^ Marston, Daniel (2005). 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See also [1] (online version), and Edwin Bacon. Glasnost' and the Gulag: New Information on Soviet Forced Labour around World War II. Soviet Studies, Vol. 44, No. 6 (1992), pp. 1069–1086; Michael Ellman. Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments. Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 54, No. 7 (Nov., 2002), pp. 1151–1172. ^ "Japanese Atrocities in the Philippines". American Experience: the Bataan Rescue. PBS Online. Archived from the original on 19 January 2010. Retrieved 18 January 2010. ^ Tanaka, Yuki (1996). Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II. Westview Press. pp. 2–3. ISBN 0-8133-2718-0. ^ Bix, Herbert (2001). Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan. HarperCollins. p. 360. ISBN 0-06-093130-2. ^ a b Ju, Zhifen (June 2002). "Japan's atrocities of conscripting and abusing north China draughtees after the outbreak of the Pacific war". Joint Study of the Sino-Japanese War:Minutes of the June 2002 Conference. Harvard University Faculty of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 18 February 2010. ^ a b "Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle For Independence, 1942–50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942–45". Library of Congress. 1992. Retrieved 9 February 2007. ^ "Manzanar National Historic Site". U.S. National Park Service. Retrieved 21 February 2012. ^ Department of Labour of Canada (24 January 1947). Report on the Re-establishment of Japanese in Canada, 1944–1946. Office of the Prime Minister. p. 23. ISBN 0-405-11266-1. ^ Kennedy, David M. (2001). Freedom From Fear : The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945. New York City: Oxford University Press. pp. 749–750. ISBN 0-19-514403-1. ^ Eugene Davidson "The Death and Life of Germany: an Account of the American Occupation" p.121 ^ Stark, Tamás. ""Malenki Robot" – Hungarian Forced Labourers in the Soviet Union (1944–1955)" (PDF). Minorities Research. Retrieved 22 January 2010. ^ a b Harrison, Mark (2000). The Economics of World War II: Six Great Powers in International Comparison. Cambridge University Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-521-78503-0. ^ Harrison, Mark (2000). The Economics of World War II: Six Great Powers in International Comparison. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 0-521-78503-0. ^ Hughes, Matthew; Mann, Chris (2000). Inside Hitler's Germany: Life Under the Third Reich. Potomac Books Inc. p. 148. ISBN 1-57488-281-3. ^ Bernstein, Gail Lee (1991). Recreating Japanese Women, 1600–1945. University of California Press. p. 267. ISBN 978-0-520-07017-2. ^ Hughes, Matthew; Mann, Chris (2000). Inside Hitler's Germany: Life Under the Third Reich. Potomac Books Inc. p. 151. ISBN 1-57488-281-3. ^ Griffith, Charles (1999). The Quest: Haywood Hansell and American Strategic Bombing in World War II. DIANE Publishing. p. 203. ISBN 1-58566-069-8. ^ Overy, R.J (1995). War and Economy in the Third Reich. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 26. ISBN 0-19-820599-6. ^ Lindberg, Michael; Daniel, Todd (2001). Brown-, Green- and Blue-Water Fleets: the Influence of Geography on Naval Warfare, 1861 to the Present. Praeger. p. 126. ISBN 0-275-96486-8. ^ Cox, Sebastian (1998). The Strategic Air War Against Germany, 1939–1945. Frank Cass Publishers. p. 84. ISBN 0-7146-4722-5. ^ Unidas, Naciones (2005). World Economic And Social Survey 2004: International Migration. United Nations Pubns. p. 23. ISBN 92-1-109147-0. ^ Liberman, Peter (1998). Does Conquest Pay?: The Exploitation of Occupied Industrial Societies. Princeton University Press. p. 42. ISBN 0-691-00242-8. ^ Milward, Alan S (1979). War, Economy, and Society, 1939–1945. University of California Press. p. 138. ISBN 0-520-03942-4. ^ Milward, Alan S (1979). War, Economy, and Society, 1939–1945. University of California Press. p. 148. ISBN 0-520-03942-4. ^ Perrie, Maureen; Lieven, D. C. B; Suny, Ronald Grigor (2007). The Cambridge History of Russia. Cambridge University Press. p. 232. ISBN 0-521-86194-2. ^ Hill, Alexander (2005). The War Behind The Eastern Front: The Soviet Partisan Movement In North-West Russia 1941–1944. Routledge. p. 5. ISBN 0-7146-5711-5. ^ Christofferson, Thomas R; Christofferson, Michael S (2006). France During World War II: From Defeat to Liberation. Fordham University Press. p. 156. ISBN 978-0-8232-2563-7. ^ Ikeo, Aiko (1997). Economic Development in Twentieth Century East Asia: The International Context. Routledge. p. 107. ISBN 0-415-14900-2. ^ a b Boog, Horst; Rahn, Werner; Stumpf, Reinhard; Wegner, Bernd (2001). Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt Germany and the Second World War—Volume VI: The Global War. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 266. ISBN 0-19-822888-0. ^ Tucker, Spencer C.; Roberts, Priscilla Mary Roberts (2004). Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History. Sanata Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 76. ISBN 1-57607-999-6. ^ Levine, Alan J. (1992). The Strategic Bombing of Germany, 1940–1945. Greenwood Press. p. 217. ISBN 0-275-94319-4. ^ Sauvain, Philip (2005). Key Themes of the Twentieth Century: Teacher's Guide. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 128. ISBN 1-4051-3218-3. ^ Tucker, Spencer C.; Roberts, Priscilla Mary Roberts (2004). Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 163. ISBN 1-57607-999-6. ^ Bishop, Chris; Chant, Chris (2004). Aircraft Carriers: The World's Greatest Naval Vessels and Their Aircraft. Wigston, Leics: Silverdale Books. p. 7. ISBN 1-84509-079-9. ^ Chenoweth, H. Avery; Nihart, Brooke (2005). Semper Fi: The Definitive Illustrated History of the U.S. Marines. New York: Main Street. p. 180. ISBN 1-4027-3099-3. ^ Sumner, Ian; Baker, Alix (2001). The Royal Navy 1939–45. Osprey Publishing. p. 25. ISBN 1-84176-195-8. ^ Hearn, Chester G. (2007). Carriers in Combat: The Air War at Sea. Stackpole Books. p. 14. ISBN 0-8117-3398-X. ^ Gardiner, Robert; Brown, David K (2004). The Eclipse of the Big Gun: The Warship 1906–1945. London: Conway Maritime. p. 52. ISBN 0-85177-953-0. ^ Rydill, Louis (1995). Concepts in Submarine Design. Cambridge University Press. p. 15. ISBN 0-521-55926-X. ^ Rydill, Louis (1995). Concepts in Submarine Design. Cambridge University Press. p. 16. ISBN 0-521-55926-X. ^ a b Tucker, Spencer C.; Roberts, Priscilla Mary Roberts (2004). Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 125. ISBN 1-57607-999-6. ^ Dupuy, Trevor Nevitt (1982). The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare. Jane's Information Group. p. 231. ISBN 0-7106-0123-9. ^ Kenneth K. Hatfield (2003). "Heartland heroes: remembering World War II.". University of Missouri Press. p.91. ISBN 0-8262-1460-6 ^ a b Tucker, Spencer C.; Roberts, Priscilla Mary (2004). Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 108. ISBN 1-57607-999-6. ^ Tucker, Spencer C.; Roberts, Priscilla Mary Roberts (2004). Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 734. ISBN 1-57607-999-6. ^ a b Cowley, Robert; Parker, Geoffrey (2001). The Reader's Companion to Military History. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 221. ISBN 0-618-12742-9. ^ "Infantry Weapons Of World War 2". Grey Falcon (Black Sun). Retrieved 14 November 2009. "These all-purpose guns were developed and used by the German army in the 2nd half of World War 2 as a result of studies which showed that the ordinary rifle's long range is much longer than needed, since the soldiers almost always fired at enemies closer than half of its effective range. The assault rifle is a balanced compromise between the rifle and the sub-machine gun, having sufficient range and accuracy to be used as a rifle, combined with the rapid-rate automatic firepower of the sub machine gun. Thanks to these combined advantages, assault rifles such as the American M-16 and the Russian AK-47 are the basic weapon of the modern soldier" ^ Sprague, Oliver; Griffiths, Hugh (2006). "The AK-47: the worlds favourite killing machine" (PDF). controlarms.org. p. 1. Retrieved 14 November 2009. ^ Ratcliff, Rebecca Ann (2006). Delusions of Intelligence: Enigma, Ultra and the End of Secure Ciphers. Cambridge University Press. p. 11. ISBN 0-521-85522-5. ^ a b Schoenherr, Steven (2007). "Code Breaking in World War II". History Department at the University of San Diego. Retrieved 15 November 2009.[dead link] ^ Macintyre, Ben (10 December 2010). "Bravery of thousands of Poles was vital in securing victory". The Times (London): p. 27. ^ Rowe, Neil C.; Rothstein, Hy. "Deception for Defense of Information Systems: Analogies from Conventional Warfare". Departments of Computer Science and Defense Analysis U.S. Naval Postgraduate School. Air University. Retrieved 15 November 2009. ^ "Konrad Zuse (1910–1995)". Istituto Dalle Molle di Studi sull'Intelligenza Artificiale. Retrieved 14 November 2009. "Konrad Zuse builds Z1, world's first programme-controlled computer. Despite mechanical engineering problems it had all the basic ingredients of modern machines, using the binary system and today's standard separation of storage and control. Zuse's 1936 patent application (Z23139/GMD Nr. 005/021) also suggests a von Neumann architecture (re-invented in 1945) with programme and data modifiable in storage" References

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