User:AnnabelGV/sandbox

Research

 * “Return to Work, Economic Hardship, and Women’s Postpartum Health”
 * https://www-tandfonline-com.ccl.idm.oclc.org/doi/pdf/10.1080/03630242.2010.522468
 * Published in 2010, cites lots of sources we cld look into
 * Physical complaints for up to 6 months after birth
 * After 6 months, new health problems popped up (headaches, sleep problems, sexual problems)
 * 15-20% of women experience postpartum depression
 * Strain on working mothers (play both “worker” and “mother” roles), but this isn’t conclusive
 * “Length of maternity leave and health of mother and child--a review”
 * Published 2007
 * https://link-springer-com.ccl.idm.oclc.org/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs00038-007-5122-1.pd
 * Slight reduction in post-neonatal and child mortality with maternity leave up to 25 weeks
 * Mothers w/ 6 wk maternity leaves had significantly more negative interactions w/ infant than w/ 12 wks
 * Longer maternity leaves associated w/ less depressive symptoms, improved mental health, increased vitality, increased duration of breastfeeding, lower infant mortality (bw 1-5 yrs)
 * 8-12 vs 6-9 show improvement in mental health


 * Zagorsky, J. L. (2017). Divergent Trends in US Maternity and Paternity Leave, 1994-2015. American Journal of Public Health, 107(3), 460–465. https://doi-org.ccl.idm.oclc.org/10.2105/AJPH.2016.303607
 * Not sure where we would add this in, but it has some good facts
 * In 2015, 47.5% of US working women received paid maternity leave, while 70.7% of men received paid paternity leave (gender gap)
 * Women who take time off are more likely to be married, white, and more educated
 * Paid maternity leave increasing 0.26%/yr
 * Vahratian, A., & Johnson, T. R. B. (2009). Maternity Leave Benefits in the United States: Today’s Economic Climate Underlines Deficiencies. Birth: Issues in Perinatal Care, 36(3), 177–179. https://doi-org.ccl.idm.oclc.org/10.1111/j.1523-536X.2009.00330.x
 * US 12 weeks does not meet WHO recommendation of minimum of 16 weeks
 * “Wage replacement is a critical component for an effective maternity leave benefit”
 * Women may use sick/vacation days to get paid leave, but then have few of those days left when they go back to work
 * Declining economies may prevent women from taking unpaid maternity leave


 * Jou, J., Kozhimannil, K. B., Abraham, J. M., Blewett, L. A., & McGovern, P. M. (2018). Paid Maternity Leave in the United States: Associations with Maternal and Infant Health. Maternal & Child Health Journal, 22(2), 216–225. https://doi-org.ccl.idm.oclc.org/10.1007/s10995-017-2393-x
 * Use and duration of paid maternity leave associated with increased maternal and infant health
 * Lower risk of infant re-hospitalization, maternal mental health care use (over 12 weeks)
 * Paid leave associated with health-positive behaviors (e.g. exercise, good diet) more than unpaid leave
 * Maternal re-hospitaliztion adds $1700-3000, and $40 million for preterm infants is spent
 * More white women take maternity leave than black or Hispanic women (paid leave decrease disparity)
 * Upper class women more likely to take leave than lower class women
 * Policy to address this/get paid leave can help correct disparities in infant mortalilty
 * Maternity leave associated w/ women’s retunrn to work
 * Most employers in states w/ mandated paid leave report no increases in costs from maternity leave

What I'm editing
I would suggest that in the “Health” section we remove the depression subheading and add the relevant information Mira suggests to the “Maternal health” subheading. Also, under “Child health and development” the article states that “Studies assert that an additional week of maternity leave among industrialized countries reduces infant mortality rates by 0.5 deaths per 1,000 live births.” This is misleading because only one study found this in 1995 and the article notes that isn’t useful as a tool for predicting the effects of longer-term maternity leave (i.e. 10 additional weeks doesn’t result in a 5 crude death decrease).

I would also propose adding somewhere in the article (maybe in the introductory sentences) that the World Health Organization recommends 16 weeks of maternity leave. Maybe edit “This is one of the lowest levels of leave in the industrialized world.[ citation needed] In comparison to other countries, the United States is one of the only countries in the world, and the only OECD member, that has not passed laws requiring business and corporations to offer paid maternity leave to their employees.[1]” to be “This is below the 16-week minimum recommended by WHO. The United States is one of the only countries in the world, and the only OECD member, that has not passed laws requiring business and corporations to offer paid maternity leave to their employees.[1]

In the economics section I would add statistics on the potential for lowering re-hospitalization of mothers and infants as well as estimates of how much those re-hospitalizations cost. In addition, one study surveying businesses that offered paid leave did not report a significant increase in company costs from maternity leave.

One thing I noticed while reading the article is that race and class are not mentioned at all. I would propose adding that upper class women are more likely to take unpaid leave than lower class women and that white women are more likely to take unpaid leave than black or Hispanic women, and that paid maternity leave decreases this disparity. This would go under the “Access equity” subheading under “social.” This paragraph alludes to economic disparity but does not mention race. Finally, I’d like to add that men are more likely than women to receive paid family leave. This would go at the beginning of the paternity section.

'''Suggested edits below. My edits are in green, group members' edits in red.'''

Maternity leave in the United States is regulated by US labor law. For the majority of US workers there is no right to paid or unpaid leave to care for a new child or recover from childbirth. The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA) requires 12 weeks of unpaid leave annually for mothers of newborn or newly adopted children if they work for a company with 50 or more employees. The requirements to qualify under FMLA disproportionately disqualifies women of color and low-income women, who are already less likely to take unpaid leave.

This is below the 16-week minimum recommended by the World Health Organization. (Vahratian 2009). This is one of the lowest levels of leave in the industrialized world. [ citation needed ] In comparison to other countries, The United States is one of the only countries in the world, and the only OECD member, that has not passed laws requiring business and corporations to offer paid maternity leave to their employees.[1] As of 2017, there had been no significant change in the proportion of women who received maternity leave in the past 20 years.

Access equality[edit]

Under the current FMLA system, approximately 40% of United States workers are ineligible for benefits due to the brevity of their tenure or the smallness of their firm.[9] These excluded populations are often low-waged and minority women thus furthering their already present disadvantage. In 2016, 38% of white working mothers qualified for and could afford to take unpaid leave under FMLA compared with 30% of African American women and 25% of Hispanic women. Moreover, the unpaid aspect of the current policy limits access to those who are economically well off. The United States Department of Labor reported that over a 22-month period in 1999 and 2000, 3.5 million people needed leave but were unable to take it due to affordability concerns.[36] In the private sector, it was found that 12% of workers received paid paternity leave with 23% of workers in the highest-wage quartile receiving paid maternity leave versus 5% of workers in the lowest-wage quartile. The lack of monetary compensation may hinder the ability of women who are not as financially secure as others to balance employment with their family life. Upper class women are more likely to take unpaid leave than lower class women. In addition, more white women take unpaid maternity leave than black or Hispanic women. This imbalance contributes to the discrepancies in infant mortality between groups (Jou et al).

Paternity leave[edit]

California is the first state to offer paid paternity leave weeks (six weeks, partial payment). New Jersey, Rhode Island,[37] and New York[38] since passed laws for paid family leave. In the rest of the US, paternity pay weeks are not offered (therefore neither paternity paid leave weeks), but fathers have access to unpaid paternity leave to care for their newborns (without new income).[37][39] Often, fathers will take sick days or vacation time when they have newborns. There is also a growing number of fathers that go unpaid. Some employers are required by law to allow 12 weeks of unpaid family leave after the birth or adoption of a child. This law is under FMLA or Family Medical Leave Act.[37] Fathers who have access to paid paternity leave give mothers the opportunity to engage in paid work, with a positive effect on female labor force participation and wages.[40] In 2015, a larger proportion of working fathers than mothers who requested leave received paid leave (Zagorsky et al).

Economic efficiency[edit]

Four states currently offer paid family leave: California, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Rhode Island.[27] In New Jersey, women who took paid leave in the year after giving birth were 40% less likely to receive public aid or food stamps.[28] According to a California-based study, 87% of employers reported that the paid leave requirement did not increase costs; 9% note that it saved money due to decreased turnover and other costs.[29]

In the United States, $40 million is spent annually on the rehospitalization of preterm infants. In addition, each maternal rehospitalization adds an extra $1,600-3,000 to the cost of childbirth. Paid maternity leave is associated with increased maternal and neonatal health, so offering paid leave could decrease these costs (Jou et al).

Though the overall labor force participation has declined since the year 2000,[30] some economists argue that paid maternity leave in California has increased labor force participation among mothers.[31] Mothers who receive paid maternity leave may be more likely to return to employment later, and then work more hours and earn higher wages.[32] There is some evidence that the state paid maternity leave program in California saves businesses from needing to provide their own leave plans and financially stabilizes workers.

Less favorable maternity leave policies may inhibit a woman's career trajectory and promotion prospects. The extended period of absence of such policies often reduce a women's economic status and opportunities.[33] During this hiatus, their job skills and experiences may deteriorate thus limiting their potential advancement.

Child health and development
It has been found that an additional week of maternity leave among industrialized countries reduces infant mortality rates by 0.5 deaths per 1,000 live births, but this statistic cannot accurately be used to predict the effects of significant changes in the length of maternity leave..[18][19] Longer maternity leave (up to 25 weeks) is associated with a reduction in post-neonatal and child mortality (Staehelin et al). A 2017 study found that there was almost a 50% reduction in the probability of infant rehospitalization when women took maternity leave that was partially and fully paid. There is also a positive correlation between maternal leave and the duration of breast-feeding.[20] (Staehelin et al) Higher breastfeeding initiation and a longer duration of breastfeeding are linked to longer maternity leave for mothers. Paid maternity leave of 12 or more weeks increases the likelihood that a mother breastfeeds her child at 6 months, according to a study using data from the 2006–2010 U.S. National Survey of Family Growth.” The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) currently recommends six months of breastfeeding exclusively, and continued breastfeeding as foods are introduced for one year for its medical and neurodevelopmental benefits (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2012) Mothers who are not engaged in employment may be more able to participate in consistent breast-feeding; babies who are breastfed may be less likely to get a variety of infections and are also at a lower risk for asthma, obesity, and infant death syndrome.[21] Research suggests that breast-feeding has the ability to yield substantial health improvements in disease prevention and immune system build-up.[22] Moreover, further evidence indicates that maternal care is especially crucial during the first couple of months following child birth, or the time in which American maternity leave is in effect.[23] Finally, evidence shows that paid maternity leave plans can increase paternal involvement in child care as shown by California's state paid maternity leave program.

Maternal health and depression
The medical definition of postpartum is the time frame between childbirth and the return of the mother's reproductive organs to their non pregnant state.[24] For women that return to work during this postpartum period, the stress of maintaining a balance between their professional and parenting responsibilities has been shown to weaken their immune systems and interact poorly with their psychological state.[25] Women of color and women classified as high economic hardship report postpartum symptoms more frequently and for a longer duration than white, upper class women.This trend is observed with both physical and mental symptoms. Maternity leave over a longer time period is associated with an increase in the health of both the mother and the child. Paid leave with a duration of over 12 weeks is correlated with a decrease in the risk of infant and maternal re-hospitalization (Jou et. al). According to a National Institute of Child Health and Human Development study on mothers of 6-month old infants, maternal work hours are correlated to “depressive symptoms and parenting stress,” and mothers viewed their personal health as worse when they worked more hours in the time period after childbirth (Pinka Chatterji, 2013)

Impact of depression
Depression is a condition with both mental and physical side effects and can be very debilitating depending on the severity. The risk factors vary from person to person, and women are typically diagnosed with depression more than men. Among other factors, pregnancy can be a cause of depression in women. Symptoms of this include a loss of interest in activities, difficulty focusing, thinking, making decisions, and remembering things, anxiety, irritation, slowed speaking, physical pains, and feelings of sadness and worthlessness.[26]   Fewer occurrences of depressive symptoms are correlated to longer maternity leave (25). A study using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study - Birth Cohort indicates there is a lower likelihood of women developing severe depression  and increased overall health if women took longer maternity leave from work (Pinka Chatterji, 2008). In addition, when the father does not take any paternal leave, there is a correlation to more depressive symptoms in the new mothers (Pinka Chatterji, 2008). For the first year postpartum, poor physical health of the mother is associated with lower mental health. Common postnatal health problems in new mothers should be considered when looking at mental health in new mothers. (Woolhouse, 2014) Physical health can likely have an effect on postpartum depression, and depression could in turn contribute to slower recovery and lower physical wellbeing for mothers post-childbirth (Brown, 2005).

Wikipedia assignments-original assigned article
Article Evaluation--First-wave feminism


 * Mary Wollstonecraft second paragraph lacks sources
 * Early American Effforts: some improper grammar
 * New Zealand: Lacks sources
 * Netherlands: lacks sources
 * United States: Some additional sources need to be added, does not mention that the right to vote was only for white women
 * Organization: There is a random section on Wollstonecraft, but no other people involved. This section should be deleted, or a more comprehensive section on first wave feminists should be added
 * The article states that the end of the first wave was the right to vote for "all women" when this is not strictly true. More nuance needs to be added to this section
 * Conflicting definitions of first wave: the article states that the first wave feminism was based around women's right to vote in America, but was also happening in Europe. Not sure if this is correct
 * It might be beneficial to split this page up into feminist movements in different countries. I'm sure women in Persia and Sweden weren't aiming for women's suffrage in the U.S.
 * Only a few European countries are included in the article. Therefore, there is not enough information on first-wave feminism as an international movement. Breaking this into articles by country would remedy this.