User:Antidiskriminator/Drafts of articles/Nationalization of history

Nationalization of history is the term used in historiography to describe the process of separation of "one's own" history from the common universal history, by way of perceiving, understanding and treating the past that results with construction of history as history of a nation. If national labeling of the past is not treated with great care, it can result with retrospective nationalization of history and even assigning nonexistent or exaggerating existing national attributes of historical events and persons. Nationalization of history, which began after period of globalization of history, was not only one of causes, but also element and result of process of establishment of modern nations (national revival).

Universal history
Universal history which was result of universal, cosmopolitan interpretation of historical events and mankind as a whole, as a coherent unit, preceded nationalization of history. In Western world, impulse for creating universal history became influential in 18th century when numerous philosophers promoted new cosmopolitan ideologies. Colonial experience (many European countries had colonies) exposed society in Europe to numerous different cultures and civilizations. It is also very important to take in consideration that 18th century was in the age of enlightenment with peoples activities, both on individual and social level, were determined with desire to follow rational scientific judgment while changing the society, which released them from restraints of customs and arbitrary authorities based on faith, superstition, or revelation and backed up by religion or tradition. All this circumstances provided suitable surrounding for development of universalistic, liberal and rational global perspectives in studies of society and its past and writing historical texts.

In his Essay on customs (1756) Voltaire studied development of civilization in the world with universal perspective, rejecting tradition, christian and national frames. He was significantly influenced by Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet and his work Discourse on the Universal history (1682) when he was first who seriously attempted to write history of the world, without limits imposed by nation or religion, emphasizing economical, cultural and political history. Imanuel Kant developed idea about universally applicable moral imperatives in his work Perpetual Peace (1795) and designed a plan for establishing cosmopolitian liberal order which would result with perpetual peace. Universalism of 18th century created ideology which in modern form could be identified as modern civil society.

Emerging of modern historiography is connected with German universities in 19th century and significant influence of Leopold von Ranke who insisted on objectivity and systematic use of historical documents in shape of authentic primary sources and his credo was to perform reconstruction of the past "as it was". Ranke's universal precepts in virtually all his works were, however, applied almost exclusively to the history of states and nations.

Causes of Nationalization of history
Though nationalization of history could probably be traced till earliest fazes of creating historical works, it was period after French revolution that creating of historical works started to be strongly influenced by national perspectives, and that perspective gradually became globally dominant with its culmination during 19th and at the beginning of 20th century. Nationalism was estimated as proper perspective in such extent, that nationalization of history remained unnoticed till recently (1980s and 1990s) and was not studied in historiography in scale that would correspond to its significance.

Many various reasons, depending on the circumstances, caused nationalization of history. Probably most important is national revival, which important element was nationalized history, that resulted with emerging of modern nations and nation-states, mostly during 19th century. With emerging of national states, global universal approach in writing history lost ground to the nation state and was very much captured by it even in significant part of 20th century. The professionalization and institutionalization of history that took part in nation state's institutions during 19th and first half of 20th century was closely connected with process of history's increasing nationalization. Nationalization of history was additionally entrenched by the development of national curricula in schools based on "monumental and prestigious" series of "authoritative" national stories often written in insular style and justificatory manner.

After First World War was finished, in some cases during establishment of new frontiers, there was principle of national self-determination taken in consideration during frontier demarcation. Therefore it was necessary to establish national historical character of certain territories and settlements, like in case between Germany and Poland and Versailles treaty when numerous historians prepared short studies in attempt to support territory demands based of Germany or Poland.

After Second World War and process of decolonization, process of establishing new countries that gave additionally stimulated nationalization of history because "new flags requested new histories". Even when citizens of newly established countries already had their national identity built, nationalization of history in those cases was aimed to creation of new national identity based on citizenship. Canada is example of attempt of nationalization of history to create shared, historically rooted identity for English and French Canadians. Causes of nationalization of history in former communist regimes, mostly at the end of 20th century, can be also found in reaction on long-term submission to communist historical interpretations and forced disregard for bourgeois nationalistic past. In cases where one of results of coloured revolutions (i.e. Georgia, Ukraine,...) was desire to gain symbolic distance from Soviet past, nationalization of history was tool for externalizing the communist past and rediscovery of European national identity of nation.

Renationalization of history
If first phase of nationalization of history was forcibly suppressed by anational ideology (communism) or traumatic loosing of wars (Japan, Germany, ...) there can be second phase, renationalization of history, on usually changed basis and perspective of nationalism.

Renationalization of history on Ukrainian example
Nationalization of history in Ukraine had two separate phases:
 * First phase began at the middle of 19th century and reached its culmination in Mykhailo Hrushevsky's “History of Ukraine - Rus'”. This phase lasted till the end of Second World War when it was stopped because of political changes in Soviet Union, while in diasporas Hrushevsky's text had cult status.
 * Second phase started at the 1980s and still (2010) lasts, as consequence of direct state sponsorship becoming integral part of nationalization of the state. At the beginning, it was not so intensive, but after its turning point on August 24, 1991, it achieved special purposes: to legitimize newly established state and its governing elites, establishing territorial and chronological conceptions of Ukrainian nation, and to confirm appropriateness of its existence as legal successor in the consciousness of its citizens and neighbours.

First phase chronologically coincided with process of "rediscovery of tradition" and national revival that captured whole Europe, while second phase takes place in period of globalization, vanishing cultural frontiers and aggressive international forms of mass culture.

Nation mythologies, histories and states
One of the most important consequences of printed texts of nationalized of history is providing basis for national revivals in process of creating of modern nations. Projects of national awakenings captured nationalized history and turned it in weapon of popularization of national myths in the period of establishing history as social scientific discipline. Shortcut to production of national mythologies that proves ancient origins of modern nations providing them with respectable past was forgery of historical documents, literature and historical works that were lost for some time, and then suddenly rediscovered to approval of astonished grateful public. Authors of such rediscovered treasures that were in quest for success and glory, did not suspect that they were in fact builders of as yet nonexistent modern nations. Even when it was obvious that certain texts are basically invented national myths, many social groups, and even intellectuals, wanted to believe that they are authentic national epics, like Kalevale in Finland.

The nationalization of history, which had it's origins more in the epics and tendentious oratory then in philosophy, sometimes grew up idea of an esprit des peuples or national spirit, and, later still, the idea of the 'mission' of each nationality. Such ideas did not evolve into groups of associated individuals, but into universal spirits that can destroy individuals and nations.

Nationalization of history was important element of national revival and creating new nation states in 19th and beginning of 20th century. New nation states and their institutions had most important role in social process of the professionalization and institutionalization of history that was additionally supporting process of nationalization of history. Final consequence was that national history regarded nation-state as primary unit of historical analysis.

Society and nature
Nationalization of history affects all aspects of life, from relationship with other nationalities to architecture. This is result of the fact that nationalization of history corresponds with nationalization of the nature, and with fact that reserves and hostilities toward other nations accompanied nationalism from the beginning. At the end of 20th century there was extreme nationalistic interpretation of the history on Balkan and Caucasus which became powerful weapon in ethno-territorial conflicts and accelerated disintegration of multinational states like Yugoslavia and Soviet Union.

After disintegration of multinational states like Yugoslavia and Soviet Union sometimes, besides the process of renationalization of history, there is also retroactive nationalization of victims or tragedies of the people that in past lived in those states. According to new national historical narratives, reason for some people being victims or suffered some tragedies was because they were certain nationality.

Denationalization of history
Nationalization of history has been increasingly called into question and one of it's consequences is emerging of process of denationalization of history, which is result of intention to change perspective of creating works about history by promoting pluralism and international standards in social sciences. In Central and Eastern Europe there are tensions between nationalization of history and process of European integrations. That is one of reasons for organized activities aimed toward denationalization of history.

In cases when history was reinterpreted and filtered by the media and official orthodoxy there is a situation in which nationalization of history leads to it's denial.