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= Torus (buckle) Fractures = Fractures of the wrist account for a third of all childhood fractures, with 1 in every 100 children presenting either a torus or a greenstick fracture.

Torus fractures are compression failures of the bone and are the most common fractures in children. It is a common occurrence following a fall, as the wrist absorbs most of the impact and compresses the bony cortex on one side and remains intact on the other, creating a bulging effect. For this reason, it is often referred to as an 'incomplete fracture' as the break is only on the one side. The compressive force is provided by the trabeculae and is longitudinal to the axis of the long bone. The word "torus" originates from the Latin word "protuberance."

Signs and Symptoms
Torus fractures are low risk and may cause acute pain. As the bone buckles (or crushes), instead of breaking, they are a stable injury as there is no displacement of the bone. This mechanism is analogous to the crumple zones in cars. As with other fractures, the site of fracture may be tender to touch and cause a sharp pain if pressure is exerted on the injured area.

Risk Factors
Physical activities or sports such as bike riding or climbing increase the associated risk for buckle fractures in the potential event of a collision or fall. As aforementioned, the most common buckle fracture is of the distal radius in the forearm, which typically originates from a Fall Onto an Outstretched Hand (FOOSH). Such orthopaedic injuries are distinctive in children as their bones are softer and in a dynamic state of bone growth and development, with a higher collagen to bone ratio so incomplete fractures such as the buckle fracture are a more common occurrence.

Diagnosis
Buckle fracturs can be identified by performing a radiograph. The diagnosis of a torus fracture is made from both anterior/posterior and lateral projections. The typical features include:


 * The buckling of cortical bone, which may appear as a small bulge or protuberance in the radius or ulna.
 * The bone may have a slight angulation..

Treatment
There is no established 'standard' treatment for buckle fractures but methods vary from soft bandages to removable splints to stricter immobilisation methods such as casting for 2-4 weeks, with regular follow-ups until fracture union, though there is growing evidence that plaster casts are unnecessary. The need for follow-up is similarly uncertain, with around 50% of hospitals in the UK routinely planning no follow-up after this diagnosis in the ED (Emergency Department). A national guideline from the UK National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) identified that all treatments appeared safe and recommended either a removable splint or a bandage, without the need for a follow-up. In fact, the NICE guideline questioned whether any treatment was necessary at all for these fractures. Studies have shown that, with removable methods at home, without the necessity of a follow-up appointment, parental satisfaction of nearly 100% is achieved.

Given the ongoing variation in treatment, in terms of type of immobilisation, and necessity for follow-up, the National Institute for Health Research in the UK have funded a randomised controlled trial, to definitively address this uncertainty. The trial, led by the University of Oxford, is called the FORCE study and is a large pragmatic trial underway at 23 ED's, throughout the UK. The trial is expected to report in Summer 2021.