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= Chinese Characteristics =

Mutual Suspicion
In this 24th chapter the author dives into the mutual suspicion of the Chinese, “a trait which they share in common with all Orientals” (p. 242). Much like the name of the chapter, the author discusses the “walls”, or general suspicion, that the Chinese people have with everyone they come into contact with. This general suspicion is seen within a distrust of government, the walled cities in the rural areas, Chinese women becoming more concealed as they grow older, and parents telling their children to not trust strangers. The author also discusses the suspicion between house servants, as well as between families. Along with these explanations of different kinds of distrust, he also gives us small anecdotes into these types of situations based on real situations that he has encountered.

The Absence of Sincerity
The 25th chapter presents the lack of sincerity in everyday Chinese mannerisms. He begins with how can people see the lack of sincerity in Chinese historical literature, specifically Confucius. Then, the author discusses the origin of this lack of sincerity, as well how it is seen in everyday speech. Smith goes onto say that the “reason for anything is hardly ever... expected, and even when it has been given, one cannot be sure of this fact”, whether this gift is tangible, a small smile, or within their everyday vocabulary, stating that everything the Chinese do lacks sincerity. Based on rumors, teaching, scholars and his own experience in China, Smith gives specific examples of this lack of sincerity of the Chinese in everyday life.

Arthur Henderson Smith
Arthur Henderson Smith (July 18, 1845 – August 31, 1932) was born in Vernon, Connecticut. He was a Civil War veteran who served in the Civil War in the year of 1864. After graduating from Beloit College in 1867. Smith and his wife, Emma Jane Dickinson, moved to China as missionaries for 54 years. Together they immersed themselves with the Chinese culture and wrote Nine volumes on China for the western audience. This includes, Chinese Characteristics, Village Life in China and The Uplift of China. Specifically, Chinese Characteristics discussed Smith’s views on the Chinese people through his personal anecdotes.

Life in China and Contributions
He was one of the few at that time to have known Chinese life so intimately and translated accurately. During his stay in China, Arthur Henderson Smith organized and distributed relief during Chinese famines. He has also persuaded President Roosevelt of the US to provide a Scholarship for Chinese students studying in the US colleges. This has resulted in change with Western policies toward China and a higher tendency of fair relationship between the two countries.

Historical Context
In the later half of the 19th century, China opened up to Western influences and modernization. Many educated elite believed that traditional Chinese beliefs were antiquated, leading to a type of nationalism that completely rejected them. Until Pearl Buck’s The Good Earth (1931) was published, Smith’s Chinese Characteristics (1890) was the most widely read American book on China. In 1906, he was invited to the White House by President Theodore Roosevelt to discuss U.S.-China relations, helping shape American opinions of China.

Crime Fiction Connections: Suspicion
The Chinese characteristics essay helps create the foundation for Chinese crime literature from a Western perspective. The essay on “Mutual suspicious” and  “the Absence of sincerity” allows to set the tone for the narrative of the Yellow Perils that emerges in the end of the 19th century. The yellow peril discourse projects the colonial idea that the East Asian population are considered as not trustworthy people. This growing Asian xenophobia in North America permits to create the conditions for Chinese crime literature that would be appreciated by the Western countries in the 20th century. Arthur H. Smith’s personal experience allows to confirm Western population’s prejudice for Chinese distrust building the setting for Chinese crime fiction.

Critiques
Although this book has many negative comments on the characteristics of Chinese people, Chinese sociologist Lu Xun[1] had given a high degree of affirmation. On October 5, 1936,[2] Mr. Lu Xun made the following remarks:（Arthur Henderson Smith ‘s）analysis is correct, he analyzed very hard, and did not ask for forgiveness and praise from others “(Compared to Arthur Henderson Smith) Goto Asari has "zhi na tong"(who knows Chinese culture very well) name, but actually superficial.” “When we try to make a thorough and introspective study, we can know that these words are not too insane.”[3] On other hand, John K. Fairbank argues that Smith’s work is extremely bias because it is observed through a middle-class American man in the rural areas of China, and it mainly focused on the cultural differences between North America and China.

Publishing and Translation
The ‘Chinese Characteristics’ by Arthur H. Smith, first published on ‘Northern China Daily Newspaper华北每日新闻’ in Shanghai. The original language was English, was thereafter translated into other western languages, Chinese, and Japanese. This book was used by the western society as an important resource for study about Chinese society and characteristics. We can say that this book significantly influenced the concept of China and Chinese for Western and Japanese scholars. From the perspective of Chinese people, Arthur was an honest and careful observer, but not necessarily accurate and objective. Therefore, the image of Chinese in the eyes of an American missionary living in 19th centuries was limited by his ideology.