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Elizabeth Helen Blackburn, (born 26 November 1948) is an Australian-AmericanNobel laureate who is the former President of the Salk Institute for Biological Studies. Previously she was a biological researcher at the University of California, San Francisco, who studied the telomere, a structure at the end of chromosomes that protects the chromosome. In 1984, Blackburn co-discovered telomerase, the enzyme that replenishes the telomere, with Carol W. Greider. For this work, she was awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, sharing it with Greider and Jack W. Szostak, becoming the only Tasmanian-born Nobel laureate. She also worked in medical ethics, and was controversially dismissed from the BushAdministration's President's Council on Bioethics.

Early life and education
Elizabeth Helen Blackburn was born in Hobart, Tasmania on 26 November 1948 to parents who were both family physicians. Her family moved to the city of Launceston when she was four, where she attended the Broadland House Church of England Girls' Grammar School (later amalgamated with Launceston Church Grammar School) until the age of sixteen. Upon her family's relocation to Melbourne, she attended University High School, and ultimately gained very high marks in the end-of-year final statewide matriculation exams. She went on to earn a Bachelor of Science in 1970 and Master of Science in 1972, both from the University of Melbourne in the field of biochemistry. Blackburn then went to receive her PhD in 1975 from the University of Cambridge, where she he worked with Frederick Sanger developing methods to sequence DNA using RNA, as well studied the bacteriophage Phi X 174. It was also here, the Medical Research Council (MRC) Laboratory of Molecular Biology at Cambridge University, where Blackburn met her husband John Sedat. Blackburn’s soon to be husband has taken a position at Yale, so she had decided to try and do her postdoctoral research there. “Thus it was that love brought me to a most fortunate and influential choice: Joe Gall’s lab at Yale.” So Elizabeth would go to complete her postdoctoral workbetween 1975 and 1977 at Yale University. In Gall’s lab, Blackburn worked with Tetrahymena, commonly referred to as “pond scum”. It was here Blackburn studied the structure of the telomere, the ends of a chromosome that prevents disintegration during cell division. Blackburn and her mentor, Joseph Gall, shared these findings in a landmark paper published in 1978, “A tandemly repeated sequence at the termini of the extrachromosomal ribosomal RNA genes in Tetrahymena”.

Career and research
After the completion of her doctoral research, Blackburn began doing postdoctoral research with Joseph Gall at Yale University. In 1978, Blackburn was doing research on the protozoan Tetrahymena thermophiland noticed a repeating codon at the end of the linear rDNA which varied in size. Blackburn then noticed that this hexanucleotide at the end of the chromosome contained a TTGGGG sequence that was tandomly repeated, and the terminal end of the chromosomes were palindromic. These characteristics allowed Blackburn and colleagues to conduct further research on the protozoan. Using the telomeric repeated end of Tetrahymena, Blackburn and colleague Jack Szostak showed the unstable replicating plasmids of yeast were protected from degradation, proving that these sequences contained characteristics of telomeres. This research also proved the telomeric repeats of Tetrahymenawere conserved evolutionarily between the species. Through this research, Blackburn and collaborators noticed the replication system for chromosomes was not likely to add to the lengthening of the telomere, and that the addition of these hexanucleotides to the chromosomes was likely due to the activity of enzyme able to transfer specific functional groups. The proposition of a possible transferase-like enzyme lead Blackburn and PhD student Carol W. Greider to the discovery of a enzyme with reverse transcriptase activity that was able to fill in the terminal ends of telomeres without leaving the chromosome incomplete and unable to divide without loss of the end of the chromosome. This 1985 discovery lead to the purification of this enzyme in lab, showing the transferase-like enzyme contained both RNA and protein components. The RNA portion of the enzyme served as a template for adding the telomeric repeats to the incomplete telomere, and the protein added enzymatic function for the addition of these repeats.Through this breakthrough, the term “telomerase” was given to the enzyme, solving the end-replication process that had troubled scientists at the time.

In 1978, Blackburn joined the faculty of the University of California, Berkeley, in the Department of Molecular Biology. In 1990, she moved across the San Francisco Bay to the Department of Microbiology and Immunology at the University of California, San Francisco(UCSF), where she served as the Department Chair from 1993 to 1999 and was the Morris Herzstein Professor of Biology and Physiology at UCSF. Blackburn became a Professor Emeritus at UCSF at the end of 2015.

Blackburn, co-founded the company Telomere Health which offers telomere length testing to the public, but later severed ties with the company.

On January 1, 2016, she was made president of the Salk Institute. In December 2017, she announced her plan to retire the following summer.

In 1984, Blackburn co-discovered telomerase, the enzyme that replenishes the telomere. Blackburn recalls:

"Carol had done this experiment, and we stood, just in the lab, and I remember sort of standing there, and she had this – we call it a gel. It's an autoradiogram because there were trace amounts of radioactivity that were used to develop an image of the separated DNA products of what turned out to be the telomerase enzyme reaction. I remember looking at it and just thinking, 'Ah! This could be very big. This looks just right.' It had a pattern to it. There was a regularity to it. There was something that was not just sort of garbage there, and that was really kind of coming through, even though we look back at it now, we'd say, technically, there was this, that and the other, but it was a pattern shining through, and it just had this sort of sense, 'Ah! There's something real here.' But then, of course, the good scientist has to be very sceptical and immediately say, 'Okay, we're going to test this every way around here, and really nail this one way or the other.' If it's going to be true, you have to make sure that it's true, because you can get a lot of false leads, especially if you're wanting something to work."For this work, she was awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, sharing it with Carol W. Greider and Jack W. Szostak.

In recent years Blackburn and her colleagues have been investigating the effect of stress on telomerase and telomeres with particular emphasis on mindfulness meditation. She is also one of several biologists (and one of two Nobel Prize laureates) in the 1995 science documentary Death by Design/The Life and Times of Life and Times.

Studies suggest that chronic psychological stress may accelerate ageing at the cellular level. Intimate partner violence was found to shorten telomere length in formerly abused women versus never abused women, possibly causing poorer overall health and greater morbidity in abused women.

In 2015, Elizabeth Blackburn was announced as the new President of the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California. “Few scientists garner the kind of admiration and respect that Dr. Blackburn receives from her peers for her scientific accomplishments and her leadership, service and integrity,” says Irwin M. Jacobs, chairman of Salk’s Board of Trustees, on Blackburn’s appointment as President of the Institute. “Her deep insight as a scientist, her vision as a leader, and her warm personality will prove invaluable as she guides the Salk Institute on its continuing journey of discovery.”  In 2017, she announced her plans to retire from the Salk Institute the following year. In the future, Blackburn wishes to focus on science policy and ethics.

Bioethics
Blackburn was appointed a member of the President's Council on Bioethics in 2002. She supported human embryonic cell research, in opposition to the Bush Administration. Her Council terms were terminated by White House directive on 27 February 2004. Dr. Blackburn believes that she was dismissed from the Council due to her disapproval of the Bush administration's position against stem cell research. This was followed by expressions of outrage over her removal by many scientists, who maintained that she was fired because of political opposition to her advice.

Scientists and ethicists at the time even went as far to say that Blackburn’s removal was in violation of Federal Advisory Committee Act of 1972, which “requires balance on such advisory bodies”

"There is a growing sense that scientific research—which, after all, is defined by the quest for truth—is being manipulated for political ends," wrote Blackburn. "There is evidence that such manipulation is being achieved through the stacking of the membership of advisory bodies and through the delay and misrepresentation of their reports."

Blackburn serves on the Science Advisory Board of the Regenerative Medicine Foundation formerly known as the Genetics Policy Institute.

Publications
Blackburn's first book The Telomere Effect: A Revolutionary Approach to Living Younger, Healthier, Longer(2017) was co-authored with health psychologistDr. Elissa Epel of Aging, Metabolism, and Emotions (AME) Center at the UCSF Center for Health and Community. Blackburn comments on aging reversal and care for one's telomeres through lifestyle: managing chronic stress, exercising, eating better and getting enough sleep; telomere testing, plus cautions and advice.

Awards and honors
Blackburns awards and honors include:


 * Eli Lilly Research Award for Microbiology and Immunology (1988)
 * National Academy of Sciences Award in Molecular Biology (1990)
 * Harvey Society Lecturer at the Harvey Society in New York (1990)
 * Honorary Doctorate of Science from Yale University (1991)
 * Fellow of American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1991)
 * Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1992
 * Fellow of American Academy of Microbiology (1993)
 * Foreign Associate of National Academy of Sciences (1993)
 * Australia Prize (1998)
 * Gairdner Foundation International Award (1998)
 * Harvey Prize (1999)
 * Keio Medical Science Prize (1999)
 * California Scientist of the Year in 1999
 * American Association for Cancer Research – G.H.A. Clowes Memorial Award (2000)
 * American Cancer Society Medal of Honor (2000)
 * Fellow of American Association for the Advancement of Science (2000)
 * AACR-Pezcoller Foundation International Award for Cancer Research (2001)
 * General Motors Cancer Research Foundation Alfred P. Sloan Award (2001)
 * E.B.Wilson Award of the American Society for Cell Biology (2001)
 * Bristol-Myers Squibb Award (2003)
 * Robert J. and Claire Pasarow Foundation Medical Research Award (2003)
 * Dr A.H. Heineken Prize for Medicine (2004)
 * Benjamin Franklin Medal in Life Science of The Franklin Institute (2005)
 * Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research (2006) (shared with Carol W. Greider and Jack Szostak)
 * Genetics Prize from the Peter Gruber Foundation (2006)
 * Honorary Doctorate of Science from Harvard University (2006)
 * Wiley Prize in Biomedical Sciences from the Wiley Foundation (shared with Carol W. Greider) (2006)
 * Fellow of Australian Academy of Science (2007)
 * Corresponding Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science (2007)
 * Recipient of the UCSF Women's Faculty Association Award
 * Honorary Doctorate of Science from Princeton University (2007)
 * Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize of Columbia University (2007) (shared with Carol W. Greider and Joseph G. Gall)
 * Academy of Achievement's Golden Plate Award (2008)
 * L'Oréal-UNESCO Award for Women in Science (2008)
 * Albany Medical Center Prize (2008)
 * Pearl Meister Greengard Prize (2008)
 * Tasmanian Honour Roll of Women (2008)
 * Mike Hogg Award (2009)
 * Paul Ehrlich and Ludwig Darmstaedter Prize (2009) (shared with Carol W. Greider)
 * The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2009, shared with Carol W. Greider and Jack W. Szostak "for the discovery of how chromosomes are protected by telomeres and the enzyme telomerase"
 * Companion of the Order of Australia (Australia Day Honours, 2010), for eminent service to science as a leader in the field of biomedical research, particularly through the discovery of telomerase and its role in the development of cancer and ageing of cells and through contributions as an international adviser in Bioethics.
 * Fellow of the Royal Society of New South Wales (FRSN) (2010)
 * California Hall of Fame (2011)
 * AIC Gold Medal (2012)
 * The Royal Medal of the Royal Society (2015).

Blackburn was elected:


 * President of the Salk Institute for Biological Studies (2016-2017)
 * President of the American Association for Cancer Research for the year 2010
 * President of the American Society for Cell Biology for the year 1998
 * Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences (1993)
 * Member of the Institute of Medicine (2000)
 * Board member of the Genetics Society of America (2000–2002)

In 2007, Blackburn was listed among Time Magazine's The TIME 100 – The People Who Shape Our World.

Personal life
Blackburn splits her time living between La Jolla and San Francisco with her husband, John W. Sedat, and has a son, Benjamin.