User:Austronesier/sandbox

User:Austronesier/sandbox1 ♦ User:Austronesier/sandbox2 ♦ User:Austronesier/sandbox3 ♦ User:Austronesier/sandbox4

Bookmarks

 * A Sociolinguistic History of Scotland
 * Crossing Multiple Borders: “The Manyema” in Colonial East Central Africa
 * The Secondary Products Revolution, Horse-Riding, and Mounted Warfare
 * An Archaeology of Bronze Age Eurasia

Uyghur vowels
Uyghur has the following inventory of vowel phonemes:

The phonetic values given here are the default realizations, with a wide range of allophones (including tense and whispered variants) for each phoneme.

The close unrounded morphophonemes and  are both represented by the phoneme /i/, and only are distinguished by the way they trigger vowel harmony: roots with  take suffixes with /ä/ and /ü/, while roots with  take suffixes with /a/ and /u/.

Other stuff

 * The modest beginnings of this evolution seem to be found in the southern Baltic region (northern Germany, the Danish Isles, southern Scandinavia), which according to accepted opinion had been settled by speakers of Indo-European around 1000 BC. They encountered speakers of non-Indo-European origin, gradually changed their Proto-Indo-European into Proto-Germanic, and dispersed beyond the original homeland to occupy the region from the North Sea stretching to the River Vistula in Poland by 500 BC.

Fortson (2004:300)
 * Archaeological and linguistic evidence suggests that speakers of Common Germanic lived in northern Europe in the ﬁrst half of the ﬁrst millennium BC, primarily in southern Scandinavia and along the coasts of the North and Baltic seas, in an area stretching from the Netherlands in the West to the Vistula River in the east, in what is now Poland.

The notion of Graeco-Armenian as a subgroup of Indo-European is not widely accepted.

Some argue that Greek and Armenian may be linked together in a wider group that also includes the Indo-Iranian languages.

Kim (2018) considers the evidence for a Graeco-Armenian connection as insufficient, and explains the common features as a result of contact; the same also holds for morphological features shared by Armenian with Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian.

Old East Nordic
Vowel system of Old East Nordic.


 * Rounding:
 * /a:/ > /ɔ:/ (Late Common Norse)


 * Monophthongization:
 * /ai/ > /e:/
 * /au/, /øy/ > /ø:/


 * Merger of short /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ (umlauted short a) with /e/ and /o/~/ø/:
 * /bɔrn/ > /børn/

Changes in Medieval Danish

 * Reduction of vowels in the ultimate to /ə/ (first spelled $⟨æ⟩$, then $⟨e⟩$) (c. 1100–1200):
 * Lengthening of consonants after short vowels (only /m/, and stops before /j/) (c. 1100–1200):
 * /koma/ > /kommə/, /sɛtja/ > /sɛttjə/


 * Lenition of medial voiceless stops (c. 1200):
 * /mata/ > /ma:ðə/, /baka/ > /ba:ɣə/


 * Vowel lengthening in open syllables (c. 1250):
 * /mata/ > /ma:ðə/


 * Shortening of long consonants (c. 1300):
 * /θakka/ > /takə/


 * Lowering of short vowels (c. 1400):
 * /finna/ > /fenə/, /lifa/ > /le:və/, /opinn/ > /ɔ:bən/


 * Merger of /θ/ with /t/ (c. 1400):
 * /θakka/ > /takə/.
 * In some frequently used words like pronouns and adverbs, the reflex is /d/:
 * /θem/ > /dem/

Conservative Modern Danish
Jespersen's Modersmålets Fonetik (1906) describes conservative Standard Danish as it was spoken at the beginning of the 20th century.

Vowels
Vowels:


 * Unrounded front vowels: $⟨i(ˑ)⟩$, $⟨e(ˑ)⟩$, $⟨æ(ˑ)⟩$ (= ), $⟨æ⟩$ (= ), only next to $⟨r⟩$).
 * Rounded front vowels: $⟨y(ˑ)⟩$, $⟨ø(ˑ)⟩$, $⟨ö(ˑ)⟩$ (= ), $⟨ö⟩$ (=, only next to $⟨r⟩$).
 * Rounded back vowels: $⟨u(ˑ)⟩$, $⟨o(ˑ)⟩$, $⟨åˑ⟩$ (= ), $⟨å⟩$ (= ).
 * Central vowel: $⟨ə⟩$
 * Three A-vowels:
 * $⟨aˑ ~ æˑ⟩$ front and slightly closed, for some speakers with the same qualitity as $⟨æ⟩$.
 * $⟨a(ˑ)⟩$ central open, the long vowel appears in R-environments.
 * $⟨ɑ⟩$ back open, in R-environments.

For the mid vowels $⟨e(ˑ)⟩$, $⟨æ(ˑ)⟩$, and $⟨o(ˑ)⟩$, Jespersen notes a slight difference between the short and long variants. For the open-mid back vowel, he records a notable distance, and uses different symbols for the two sounds: $⟨åˑ⟩$, $⟨å⟩$.

The vowels [æ], [ɶ], [ɑ] and [ä:] only occur as variants of /ɛ/, /œ/, /a/ and /a:/, when preceded or followed by /r/.

Consonants
One of the main differences with current Standard Danish is the occurrence of the velar fricative $⟨q⟩$ (/ɣ/) which was realized as ~ between vowels, and as ~ before consonants, e.g. bage [ba:ɣə], bagde [baxd̥ə].

Syllable-closing /r/ can either be realized as a voiceless [ʁ̥], or as "vocalized" [ɐ̯] (written $⟨ɹ⟩$).

Loss of of the velar fricative /ɣ/
In the turn of the 20th century, /ɣ/ disappeared from the common standard language, and shifted to /w/, /j/ or zero in most positions, or to /g/ before the suffixes /-də/ and /-d/:


 * bage /ba:ɣə/ > /ba:jə/ [bɛ:jə]
 * bagde /baɣdə/ > /bagdə/ [baɡ̊d̥ə]

Vowel lowering following /r/
All non-high front vowels are subject to lowering following /r/ ([ʁ]).

The downward push led to a few phonemic mergers:


 * Long /e:/ and /ɛ:/ merged into [ɛ̝:] in the second half of the 20th century, unless followed by /ð/. In the latter case, only /e:/ acquired the default value [ɛ̝:], while /ɛ:/ opened to [æ:] at an intermediate stage, and finally merged with /ɑ:/.


 * {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

! !! ! G's parents ! Grønnum ! Younger gen.
 * rowspan=2| &#124;reː&#124; || default || rowspan=2| [ʁe:] (/re:/) || rowspan=3| [ʁɛ̝:] (/rɛ:/) || rowspan=3| [ʁɛ̝:] (/rɛ:/)
 * before &#124;d&#124;
 * rowspan=2| &#124;rɛː&#124; || default || rowspan=2| [ʁɛ̝:] (/rɛ:/)
 * before &#124;d&#124; || [ʁɛ̝: ~ ʁæ:] (/rɛ: ~ ra:/) || [ʁɑ̈:] (/rɑ:/)
 * }
 * Short /ɛ/ merged with /a/ into [ɑ̈] unless followed by dorsal consonant (late 20th century):
 * ret /rɛt/ [ʁad̥] > [ʁɑ̈d̥] (thus identical to rat /rat/ [ʁɑ̈d̥]), but: trække /trɛgə/ [tˢʁ̥aɡ̊ə]
 * before &#124;d&#124; || [ʁɛ̝: ~ ʁæ:] (/rɛ: ~ ra:/) || [ʁɑ̈:] (/rɑ:/)
 * }
 * Short /ɛ/ merged with /a/ into [ɑ̈] unless followed by dorsal consonant (late 20th century):
 * ret /rɛt/ [ʁad̥] > [ʁɑ̈d̥] (thus identical to rat /rat/ [ʁɑ̈d̥]), but: trække /trɛgə/ [tˢʁ̥aɡ̊ə]
 * ret /rɛt/ [ʁad̥] > [ʁɑ̈d̥] (thus identical to rat /rat/ [ʁɑ̈d̥]), but: trække /trɛgə/ [tˢʁ̥aɡ̊ə]

In the second half of the 20th century, lowering further started to extend to /u/ being pronounced as [o] and thus merging with /o/. This merger is however still unstable.