User:Austronesier/sandbox2

G-dropping
While synchronically, the realization of ing as /-ɪn/ is perceived as a phonetic phenomenon with a shift of unstressed /-ɪŋ/ to /-ɪn/, the latter is a actually a direct continuation of the Middle English suffix -inde (present participle).

The Modern English suffix -ing (present participle; gerund) is the result of merger of the two the Middle English suffixes -ynge (gerund) and -inde (present participle). In written English, the latter was increasingly replaced by the former in late Middle English. This process was completed in the 16th century. It is generally assumed that this was primarily a graphic convention: while in the prestigious varieties of southern England, the two suffixes indeed merged into /-ɪŋ/ (< -ynge), the form /-ɪn/ (< -inde) persisted in many dialects (e.g. Scots and northern English dialects/regiolects) and sociolects (e.g. Cockney) until the present day.

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Like in the US, usage of the /-ɪn/ variant is strongly linked to sociolinguistic factors in southern England, where it is (at least historically) linked with working-class accents. In northern England, social stratification only plays a minor role; here, usage of /-ɪn/ is predominantly governed by grammatical function.

Unlike in the US, the /-ɪn/ variant is generally not negatively perceived (e.g. as a marker of lack of competence in professional contexts) by British English speakers, even by speakers who do not employ the /-ɪn/ variant themselves.

Pitu Ulunna Salu
Unlike the languages in the other branches of Northern South Sulawesi (all of which have a simple five-vowel system), most Pitu Ulunna Salu languages have a six or seven-vowel system. Next to the five cardinal vowels /a, e, i, o, u/, there is a near-open front vowel /æ/ in Bambam, Aralle-Tabulahan, Ulumanda' and Pannei (spelled ä), cf. änä' "child". Ulumanda' and Pannei have a seventh vowel that is spelled ö by van der Veen and transcribed as /ɨ/ by Smith, e.g. Ulumanda mänö' "chicken".

Massenrempulu
The languages of the Massenrempulu group are generally quite close to the Toraja languages, but show some convergence to the Buginese language spoken to the south and east of it, which can be seen in its lexicon, e.g. Duri, Buginese macca "clever" (cf. Toraja manarang), Duri, Buginese aje "foot" (cf. Toraja lette').

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Vasconic languages
Vasconic languages may refer to:


 * a hypothetical language family proposed in the Vasconic substrate hypothesis
 * a proposed language family comprising all present and historical variants of the Basque language