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=Military Bases’ Impact on the Environment= Military bases are known to the public for their harsh environmental impacts created by their activities. The main activities in military bases are providing life necessities for their inhabitants, military training and weapon testing. A vast majority of environmental impacts caused by military bases create adverse effects on the surroundings and spread to nearby communities. Rarely are there cases when the disturbance of military actions would cause a positive effect on the area. The environmental impact of activities at the base includes habitat destruction and contamination, pollution, chemical leakage and loss of diversity. More negative impacts would also include disturbances such as alterations in landscape, topography and vegetation caused by vehicles and weaponry during military training.

Waste Disposal
Waste products produced within military bases can be briefly categorized into living waste (such as food and discretions), inorganic waste (such as packaging and metals) and hazardous waste (such as chemicals and batteries). These materials require proper separation and disposal to minimize negative impacts towards people and environment. Improper handling or storage of fuels, explosives, solvents and other toxic substances spread through multiple mediums and prove to affect the environment and nearby communities (Hay-Edie et al., 2002). The traditional and the most common way of minimizing military base waste volume is through open-cite burning pits. High quantities of volatile organic compounds (VOC), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and particulate matter 2.5 (PM 2.5) are found during the incineration process and proven to expose people and wildlife to respiratory problems (Aurell et al., 2012). Tools such as air curtain burners/burn boxes have been confirmed scientifically to decrease emissions significantly. Through high burning temperatures, PCDD/PCDF and PBDD/PBDF emissions demonstrated to be 50 times less compared to open-air burning pits (Aurell et al., 2012).

Afghanistan
During 2001 to 2013, hundreds of military bases by NATO's International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan depended on burn pits to eliminate waste. Pits without proper care are usually filled with hazmat materials such as paint thinner, vehicle parts, hazardous materials and even ammunition (Rempfer 2018). The practice of burning waste in the open air let out many emissions such as dioxins, PAHs, VOCs and particulate matter though incineration equipment were provided (J., 2015). Large streams of waste gases are inhaled by personnels and civilian contractors, causing lung and respiratory issues (Rempfer 2018). Carcinogens in air and water cause all life forms to deteriorate quickly (Rempfer 2018).

Disturbance
Natural habitats are often disturbed due to military training action, such as building bases, digging trenches, tank and artillery training (Aunins et. al 2018). Wildlife are removed from their natural habitat. Landshapes are deformed and vegetation are stripped away due to military training and testing (Aunins et. al 2018).

Richness of Species
A rare case in Adazi military actions provided positive effects on the bird population and the general habitat in the military training area over the one year of the study conducted. Biodiversity and overall species richness was observed due to Adazi's military activities as their actions stimulated disturbance, which the area naturally lacks. The heterogeneous disturbances caused by the deformation of the land formed feeding sites benefited the survival of birds. Sandy patches over the land created by trench digging formed small, unique ecosystems that allowed different vegetation and species to success (Aunins et. al 2018). Earthworms being crushed and vegetation along with topsoil being stripped as tanks runs over had a boost in population (Aunins et. al 2018). Adazi reconstruction of the land introduced more species that favors sand patches and rugged terrarian (Aunins et. al 2018). Though overall there was no overwhelmingly negative impact to the wildlife and habitat, this study was only conducted over a small period of time and should not be applied to all cases.

Sustainability
Like cites, military bases need to consider applying sustainability measures in order to decrease environmental impacts (Procter et al., 2015). Energy consumption and waste management are areas that need improvement. As military bases expand, more energy is required for operations therefore requiring more funds. Many military bases are starting to adopt green technology to cut own operation costs, resources and environmental damage.

U.S. Army Net Zero Program
Net Zero is a target that aims to decrease military bases’ liability on the environment to zero. The goal for the U.S. Army Net Zero program is to fully convert non-renewable energy to green energy, zero waste and zero exhaustion of water resources by 2020 (Procter et al., 2015 ). A current obstacle to the Net Zero Program is how to balance energy trade-offs. For example, using solar power and/ or waste combustion for energy will both increase demand for water but decreases production cost for energy (Procter et al., 2015 ). Reaching a net zero of consumption from an industrial ecology perspective may not be possible with current technology but it will lead to lower environmental impact for bases (Procter et al., 2015 ).

Leaving Fossil Fuels
Ray Mabus, the Navy secretary at the time of the Afghanistan War encouraged renewable energy sources to replace half of the fossil fuel consumption (Rosenthal, 2010). Fossil fuel transportation between military bases in Afghanistan is dangerous for NATO troops as they are easy targets for adversaries (Rosenthal, 2010). Oil tankers were set on fire which also caused air pollution and destruction of the land. Having the fuel destroyed along with the delivering troops, equipment and invested money is not sustainable (Rosenthal, 2010). Within 4 years, more than 3000 U.S troops were lost between Iraq and Afghanistan for protecting oil (Hicks, 2017).

As a result, militaries diverted their focus from fuel-powered weapons to electric-based weapons. U.S.S Makin Island is a successful hybrid assault ship that ran on electricity and saved 900,000 gallons of fuel due to its efficiency (Rosenthal, 2010). This success encouraged militaries to incorporate more renewable energy into the battlefield, such as biofuel Air Force and solar energy marines (Rosenthal, 2010).