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Primate communication Field primatologists can give us useful insights into great ape communication in the wild.[30] An important finding is that nonhuman primates, including the other great apes, produce calls that are graded, as opposed to categorically differentiated, with listeners striving to evaluate subtle gradations in signalers' emotional and bodily states. Nonhuman apes seemingly find it extremely difficult to produce vocalizations in the absence of the corresponding emotional states.[41] In captivity, nonhuman apes have been taught rudimentary forms of sign language or have been persuaded to use lexigrams—symbols that do not graphically resemble the corresponding words—on computer keyboards. Some nonhuman apes, such as Kanzi, have been able to learn and use hundreds of lexigrams.[159][160]

The Broca's and Wernicke's areas in the primate brain are responsible for controlling the muscles of the face, tongue, mouth, and larynx, as well as recognizing sounds. Primates are known to make "vocal calls", and these calls are generated by circuits in the brainstem and limbic system.[161]

In the wild, the communication of vervet monkeys has been the most extensively studied.[158] They are known to make up to ten different vocalizations. Many of these are used to warn other members of the group about approaching predators. They include a "leopard call", a "snake call", and an "eagle call".[162] Each call triggers a different defensive strategy in the monkeys who hear the call and scientists were able to elicit predictable responses from the monkeys using loudspeakers and prerecorded sounds. Other vocalizations may be used for identification. If an infant monkey calls, its mother turns toward it, but other vervet mothers turn instead toward that infant's mother to see what she will do.[163][164]

Similarly, researchers have demonstrated that chimpanzees (in captivity) use different "words" in reference to different foods. They recorded vocalizations that chimps made in reference, for example, to grapes, and then other chimps pointed at pictures of grapes when they heard the recorded sound.[165][166]

Our Edited Version: Primate communication Field primatologists can give us useful insights into great ape communication in the wild.[30] An important finding is that nonhuman primates, including the other great apes, produce calls that are graded, as opposed to categorically differentiated, with listeners striving to evaluate subtle gradations in signalers' emotional and bodily states. Nonhuman apes seemingly find it extremely difficult to produce vocalizations in the absence of the corresponding emotional states.[41] In captivity, nonhuman apes have been taught rudimentary forms of sign language or have been persuaded to use lexigrams—symbols that do not graphically resemble the corresponding words—on computer keyboards. Some nonhuman apes, such as Kanzi, have been able to learn and use hundreds of lexigrams.[159][160] Similarly, researchers have demonstrated that chimpanzees (in captivity) use different "words" in reference to different foods. They recorded vocalizations that chimps made in reference, for example, to grapes, and then other chimps pointed at pictures of grapes when they heard the recorded sound.[165][166] Gestures play a large role in communication in primates. For example, the gestures that chimpanzees use have specific meanings, as stated previously. Some gestures such as “embrace”, “object move”, and “object shake” have statistical significance in association with the intended outcomes of the gestures.[201] In regards to primates, visual and auditory components are the fundamental features in communication [199]. Though chimpanzees express emotions through the sound created from their vocalization, facial expressions also play a vital role in communication [199]. For example, lip-smacking is an oral gesture that can occur during grooming, and as a result, can coordinate the process [200]. When lip-smacking occurs at the start of the grooming activity, the action will most likely last longer, compared to an uncommunicative one [200]. Along with facial expressions, the expression of bared-teeth can commonly refer to a feeling of fear in chimpanzees [199]. Researchers are using chimpanzee facial expressions like these to help understand the connection to human communication and the evolution of it [202].

The Broca's and Wernicke's areas in the primate brain are responsible for controlling the muscles of the face, tongue, mouth, and larynx, as well as recognizing sounds. Primates are known to make "vocal calls", and these calls are generated by circuits in the brainstem and limbic system.[161] In the wild, the communication of vervet monkeys has been the most extensively studied.[158] They are known to make up to ten different vocalizations. Many of these are used to warn other members of the group about approaching predators. They include a "leopard call", a "snake call", and an "eagle call".[162] Each call triggers a different defensive strategy in the monkeys who hear the call and scientists were able to elicit predictable responses from the monkeys using loudspeakers and pre-recorded sounds. Other vocalizations may be used for identification. If an infant monkey calls, its mother turns toward it, but other vervet mothers turn instead toward that infant's mother to see what she will do.[163][164]

References:

[199] Parr, A., L., Waller, & M., B. (2006, December 01). Understanding chimpanzee facial expression: Insights into the evolution of communication. Retrieved from https://academic.oup.com/scan/article/1/3/221/2362993

[200] Fedurek, P., Slocombe, K. E., Hartel, J. A., & Zuberbühler, K. (2015). Chimpanzee lip-smacking facilitates cooperative behaviour. Scientific Reports, 13460. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep13460

[201] Hobaiter, C., & Byrne, R. W. (2014). The Meanings of Chimpanzee Gestures. Current Biology,24(14), 1596-1600. Retrieved December 5, 2018, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982214006678.

[202] Emory University. "Chimpanzee Facial Expressions Are Helping Researchers Understand Human Communication." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 26 March 2007. .