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Elements of the Philosophy of Plants (original German title: Neue Entdeckungen im ganzen Umfang der Pflanzenkunde) is a botany textbook written by the German botanist Kurt Sprengel (1766-1833) and the Swiss botanist Augustin-Pyrame de Candolle (1778-1841). It was first published 1820 in German and then anonymously translated into English in 1821. The motivation of the authors to publish this book was to give an updated overview of botanical knowledge for the scientific community at this time, as the findings of the German botanist Carl Ludwig Willdenow (1765-1812) were seen as outdated and new information was added to Carl Linnaeus' (1707-1778) work. The first three parts of the book, which contain chapters about nomenclature, the theory of classification, and phytography, were copied and translated from de Candolle's book Théorie élémentaire de la botanique (1819). The other parts of the textbook were written by Sprengel, where he described the anatomy and composition of plants, factors that impact the life of plants, plant diseases and the history of botany. Additionally, the last part of the book characterises 46 different plants and provides a description, geographic distribution and applications for each. To provide a pictorial representation of the findings, eight plates with botanical drawings were added to the beginning of the book.

Context
In the beginning of the 19th century, science in Europe was hindered by the events of the Napoleonic wars and political reactions thereafter. Following Napoleon’s victory over Prussia in 1806, Germany experienced a flood of industrialisation and nationalism, sparking the expansion of all sciences, including botany, where German botanists soon became leaders of the field. Sprengel was part of this development in botany by becoming a professor at the University of Halle in 1795, as well as the director of the botanical garden in Halle. Furthermore, the stabilising of economies around Europe granted the expansion of exploration and thus the addition of new plants.

Botany in the 19th century revived a focus on the internal structures of plants, aided by advances on the microscope, which became more practical and had improved resolution. Consequently, a greater insight into plants could be obtained to draw plant sketches in more detail and gain more knowledge about plant life processes. Sprengel used the microscope to do his plant research, although microscopes were a rarely used method for observing plants. However, due to developments at the end of the 18th century, Sprengel was one of the first botanists that employed microscopy and therefore made pioneering progresses in botany, by gaining a better understanding of the plants and to produce more detailed plant drawings. Yet, the textbook lacks complex microscopic structures, such as organelles, as the development of microscopes was not sufficiently advanced until the late 19th century. In 1802, Sprengel invited Johann Wolfgang von Goethe to use the microscope for Goethe’s plant studies. They became friends and Goethe acknowledged and promoted Sprengel’s work, even citing him in his study about the germination of the date palm.

In both the 18th and 19th century, Plato's allegory of the cave inspired the development of a classification system for lower and higher living organisms. It became important for botanists of the time to introduce a classification of plants, where an order of lower and higher living systems can be seen. Linnaeus was influenced by Plato’s systemisation and by the 19th century the Linnaean taxonomy system was generally accepted. Advances in plant classification were further made by Robert Brown and Auguste de Candolle at the beginning of the century. After Linnaeus’ classification of plants, European botanists no longer considered botany a science as popular belief was that the only remaining task was to find new, unknown plants and to classify them according to the Linnaean system. The pursuit of classification can be also seen in Sprengel’s book Elements of the Philosophy of Plants where he classified 46 plants.

In regards towards his motivation on writing this book Sprengel states in his preface that “progress which the higher and scientific knowledge of plants has lately made” demanded a new introductory work for students looking to approach botany. This book was intended to replace the introductory work of Willdenow,  Grundriss der Kräuterkunde (1792), which had been the leading authoritative work on botany since the work of Linnaeus. Sprengel refers to Willdenow’s book, saying that it “has now become completely useless.” The translator remarks in his preface that “it has been rendered more capable of misleading and perplexing the student, than of serving even as an introductory treatise” (p. viii). Sprengel states in his preface of the book that, “it was my object to promote a knowledge of the vegetable world among the public at large.” His motivation being to produce a work that included the recent advancements in botany, and one that was reflective of the many advancements throughout the entire body of science. He expresses his confidence that he was able to “fulfil well the task I had undertaken.”

Content
Elements of the Philosophy of Plants opens with a brief introduction to general botany by Kurt Sprengel. The English edition features an additional preface by an anonymous translator who credits the authors' achievements and dedicates his translation to Professor Robert Jameson, a well-known Scottish naturalist. The textbook is divided into five main sections (four Parts and a Practical Part), with parts I-III taken directly from de Candolle's 1813 work. The information in the final two sections was compiled by Sprengel himself from various sources. The Practical Part is supplemented with eight illustrative plates by Scottish engraver William Home Lizars, which are included at the beginning of the textbook.


 * 1) Part I - Nomenclature: This part establishes the basic terms and methods for describing plants and plant organs, such as commonly accepted units of measurement and descriptions of colour and texture. It also contains definitions of contemporary common terms in botanical science and briefly explains their Latin and Greek origins.
 * 2) Part II - Taxonomy (The Theory of Classification): This part of the textbook presents an extensive explanation of the Linnaean taxonomy system. An overview of the system's inaccuracies and weak points is given and some possible improvements are proposed. Afterwards, de Candolle also describes elements of his own natural classification system. The section further deals with theories and methods of natural classification and establishing the connections between genera.
 * 3) Part III - Phytography (Descriptive Botany): The third part of the textbook describes the generation and use of generic and trivial plant names. Also included are the methods of deriving exact names for plant organs based on their specific characteristics in different plants. Finally, there is a brief introduction to the description of gardens and plant collections.
 * 4) Part IV - Phytonomy (On the Structure and Nature of Plants): This is the first part written by Sprengel, and the first to focus on theories rather than definitions and methods of study and classification. It explains the basic structure of the major plant organs, their chemical composition, and their purposes. It outlines several experiments that demonstrate the effects of various elements and stimuli on plants, some of which are conducted by Sprengel himself. This section of the textbook also puts forward some theories on the common origins and distribution of plants, as well as descriptions of some common plant diseases. It concludes with an overview of the history of botany from Ancient Greece to the most recent 19th century developments.
 * 5) Part V - Practical Part: The final section of the textbook consists of detailed descriptions of the plants and plant organs depicted in the illustrative plates. This part features physical descriptions, geographical distributions and classifications. Additionally, some of the possible known applications of the plants are mentioned such as medicinal uses, edibility and agricultural purposes.

Literary styles
The textbook was redacted from two authors who each had their own way of communicating through their writings. The anonymous translator remarked of them, "De Candolle is distinguished by the subtlety, the flexibility and metaphysical cast of his expression, Sprengel seems to possess a style, occasionally abrupt indeed, but always luminous, condensed, and bearing evident marks of a mind of no common powers." (Translator's Preface, p.xii). As characteristic for its time, the textbook is heavily descriptive of every topic it addresses, with few illustrations. The claims made in the book about the nature of plants are thoroughly substantiated with experimental observations, setting it apart from its forerunners. The authors comment on the work of their contemporaries and predecessors, offering an overview of the field of botany as it stood then.

The scientific literature of the 19th century moved towards increasing standardisation and formalisation of style. However, the scope of this literature encompassed pure research, applications of certain research, as well as "popular" science which appealed to public interest. Because all these factions of science were included together, the audience of the literature ranged from academics and scholars to interested members of the public, as well as those looking to benefit from new scientific applications. The literature was made accessible to these varied audiences by using formal language and vocabulary, but avoiding jargon as much as possible, and explaining it where necessary. This writing convention is reflected in the textbook's language. It rigorously explains any terms that are deemed essential for the study of botany, but refers to such terms by their simpler explanations thereafter. In addition, the different factions of science were addressed. There are sections for theory - the "philosophical" parts, as well as sections helpful for plant husbandry which describe plant diseases.

The authorship of this textbook in 1820 took place during the Romantic Period and the prevailing philosophies of which affected the way science was approached. New theories were open for exploration, as nature and the natural world was elevated in importance. In previous decades, any works of Natural Philosophy that did explore such themes sought to relate them to a Divine wisdom. The Romantic scientists, by contrast, understood the Divine presence as pervading and one with nature. Therefore, since God and nature were one and the same in their view, it was acceptable to study the processes of nature without directly referencing Divine action. Influence of this perspective is evident in Elements of the Philosophy of Plants where it presents theories of natural history. It discusses how plants became distributed throughout the world over history, without ever making deistic references.

Reception and impact
The most immediate information on the reception of Elements of the Philosophy of Plants comes from the preface of the anonymous translator of the English edition, which was published in 1921. In this preface, the translator comments on the content and significance of the book, as well as on its initial reception, months after its publication. According to the translator’s preface, the textbook successfully documents the recent advances in botany and represents both the current wealth of established knowledge and the very latest emerging theories in plant science at the time. In the preface, the book is also compared to the works of the authors’ predecessor, Willdenow, specifically his writings on the physiology of plants. The translator agrees with Sprengel’s assertion that Willdenow's work has lost its significance to the study of botany due to the rapid advancements in the field in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. He also praises Sprengel and de Candolle's book, comparing it to other contemporary works and claiming that “perhaps there is no work on the Vegetable World that displays more varied or instructive information.”

In addition to the reception received specifically by this textbook, the authors’ general body of works has been positively reviewed, as they were both individually well-regarded by the botanical community. Upon his death, Sprengel’s textbooks were described as vital to the subject of botany by the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. In his own right, de Candolle was considered one of the two foremost botanists of the early 19th century along with Robert Brown. His reputation in botany has persisted as one of its most important figures; his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, parts of which are featured in Sprengel’s book, is considered one of his finest contributions to plant biology.

As a work that presents a collection of the most recent advancements in botany at the time, Elements of the Philosophy of Plants is currently part of the Jesuit Library collection of historical research writings that can be found in the Special Collection of the library of the University of Maastricht in the Netherlands.