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Copied from Deaf Education

Identifying deaf students

Children may be identified as candidates for deaf education from their audiogram or medical history. Hearing loss is generally described as slight, mild, moderate, severe, or profound, depending upon how well a person can hear the intensities of frequencies.[1] Of the children identified as deaf, only 5-10% are born to deaf parents.[not in citation givenADD CITATION, MITCHELL AND KARCHMER] This percent of deaf students whose parents are sign language users have a clear linguistic advantage when entering the education system due to more extensive exposure to an accessible first language.[2] In cases of congenital hearing loss (hearing loss from birth), parents can start to notice differences in their kids hearing as soon as newborn to three months old. If a child doesn't respond to sudden loud sounds, this could be an indication. As the baby begins to age to around four to eight months, they should turn their head towards where the sound is coming from. Around a year to 16 months, if they don't pronounce words correctly, or don't speak at all, this could also be an indication.[3] All those are indications of congenital hearing loss, which means the child was born this way. A child can also acquire hearing loss at a young age due to a middle ear infection, a serious head injury, exposure to loud noises over a long period time, and many other ways. If this occurs, the same symptoms would occur as they do with congenital hearing loss. If this happens when a child is older, around toddler or preschool age, there are more signs to look for. Signs could include a child not replying when their name is called. The child may pronounce words differently than the rest of their peers. If the child turns up the TV incredibly high or sits very close, this could also be an indication. One of the biggest indications that a child may have hearing loss is when they are having a conversation with someone, they intensely focus on the person's lips and facial expressions to understand what they are saying. [4] If a child has these signs, getting a screening for hearing loss would be the next step. In as recent years as the 1990s, many parents in the United States were unaware that their child was deaf until on average 2.5 to 3 years old, according to the U.S. National Institute of Health. Worse yet, many other children were not identified as having any hearing impairment until they reached 5 or 6 years of age. In 1993, the National Institutes of Health’s Concensus Development Conference on Early Identification of Hearing Loss concluded previous risk-based assessment was not suficient and that that all infants should receive hearing screenings, ideally prior to hospital discharge postpartum. At the time of this decision, only 11 hospitals nationally were performing screening on 90 percent of babies born, according to the National Center for Hearing Assessment and Management. Since then, universal heating screening has greatly improved early identification (NIH Fact Sheets, 2018). Language deprivation is defined as lack of access to language during a child’s critical period for language exposure, which begins to taper off precisely around the age of five (Hall 2017). Unlike any other population, the vast majority of Deaf and hard of hearing children are at risk of having this type of limited exposure to language in early childhood. Research on language deprivation and early childhood interventions to prevent language deprivation are burgeoning. Language Equality & Acquisition for Deaf Kids (About LEAD-K, 2017), for example, is a national campaign that aims to ensure that D/HH children in the United States gain the early language foundation necessary to be kindergarten-ready. For D/HH adolescents and adults who have passed the critical period for language acquisition and have experienced language deprivation, the consequences are far-reaching. Delayed age of acquisition of a first language has deleterious effects on all levels of language processing, ranging from syntactic, to lexical, to phonological difficulties (Mayberry, 2007), not to mention cognitive delays, mental health difficulties, lower quality of life, higher trauma, and limited health literacy (Hall, 2017). Additionally, delayed exposure to a fully accessible language (i.e. a natural sign language) in early life not only affects the ability to acquire such a sign language later in life, but “leads to incomplete acquisition of all subsequently learned languages” (Mayberry, 2007, p. 547). The impact of language deprivation is severe and must be considered in efforts toward early identification of deaf and hard of hearing children as well as intervention. [add link to language deprivation wiki page]

ADD TO REFERENCES: Mitchell, R. E., & Karchmer, M. A. (2004). Chasing the Mythical Ten Percent: Parental Hearing Status of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students in the United States. Sign Language Studies,4(2), 138-163. doi:10.1353/sls.2004.0005

NIH Fact Sheets - Newborn Hearing Screening. (2018, June 30). Retrieved from            	https://report.nih.gov/nihfactsheets/ViewFactSheet.aspx?csid=104

http://www.infanthearing.org/screening/ (NCHAM)

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3114997/ (Patel & Feldman)

Methods

Schools use a number of approaches to provide educational services to deaf students. These typically are grouped into four categories, according to the primary language of instruction (e.g., sign language, spoken language, artificial sign systems) and whether peers are deaf or hearing.

1) Bilingual-Bicultural (BiBi) (Variations: Bilingual, Dual language) Primary language of instruction: sign language and written language Peers: Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing

In this method, deafness is approached as a cultural, not a medical, issue.[15] In a bilingual-bicultural program, deaf children are recommended to learn sign language such as American Sign Language (ASL) as a first language, followed by a written or spoken language such as English as a second language.[15][16] In Bilingual-Bicultural education, deaf students learn two languages (sign language and written language) and two cultures (Deaf culture and hearing culture). STo avoid harming the students' accuracy and fluency in either language, sign language and spoken language are not used simultaneously, since they use different grammar, syntax, and vocabulary; Sign language is the primary language of instruction and instruction is designed to allow children to develop age-appropriate fluency in both languages. Many bilingual-bicultural schools have dormitories; students may either commute to school or stay in a dormitory as part of a residential program (see boarding school), visiting their families on weekends, holidays and school vacations.

(*some bilingual-bicultural schools use spoken language in some contexts with some students.[citation needed] - FIND CITATION OR DELETE?)

Examples of Bilingual-Bicultural K-12 programs in the United States include Texas School for the Deaf, The Learning Center for the Deaf, and California School for the Deaf. Bilingual-bicultural colleges and universities include Gallaudet University, National Technical Institute for the Deaf (NTID), and Southwest Collegiate Institute for the Deaf (SWCID).

2) Auditory/Verbal (Variation: Aural/Oral) Primary language of instruction: spoken/written language; sign language or an artificial sign system may also be used in some programs Peers: Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing

In Auditory/Verbal schools, deaf students are taught to listen and talk through the use of assistive listening devices (ALDs) such as hearing aids, cochlear implants, or frequency modulation (FM) systems.

Examples of Auditory/Verbal K-12 programs in the United States include Clarke Schools for Hearing and Speech, Cleary School, and Memphis Oral School for the Deaf.

3) Mainstream Primary language of instruction: teachers use spoken/written language; 1:1 interpreter uses sign language or an artificial sign system Peers: varies depending on the type of mainstream setting

There are several types of mainstream programs. The term most commonly refers to public schools which cater to a typically-hearing student body. Deaf children who are mainstreamed typically join a class of predominantly (if not exclusively) typically-hearing peers. Subjects are taught through spoken language and an interpreter interprets all communication into the deaf student’s primary language (e.g., sign language, an artificial sign system). Some deaf and hard-of-hearing students in mainstream schools are placed in self-contained classrooms. In this setting, DESCRIBE to add: -Definition of inclusion - this is a special ed term, but is not generally actually inclusive for Deaf students -role of Interpreters -Itinerant teachers -Hearing loop, other technologies -self-contained classrooms

4) Grouped with other special ed programming (what do we call this) Special ed schools?