User:Beekeepergabi/Galapagos penguin

Presentation Outline

 * Urban environments and their direct relationships with them. Although the Galapagos penguins aren’t found in urban environments, they are still indirectly negatively impacted by urbanization. This includes the waste disposal that humans release into the water daily, greenhouse gas emissions, and energy usage. All are factors that can link urbanization to climate change, highlighting the importance of the harmful effects it has on the Galapagos penguins. Urban environments are a catalyst for pollution that contributes to climate change, which directly impacts marine life, including the Galapagos penguins, as they are especially susceptible to climate change.
 * We will expand on the relationship between the Galápagos penguins and the Galápagos islands, specifically Fernandina Island and Isabela Island which they inhabit the most. How they affect their environment, and how they have adapted to the island's conditions. As well as how environmental factors have affected their life expectancy and population.
 * We will explore the reasons why they are endangered, and their species conservation status is threatened. As well as how the species population has fluctuated due to anthropogenic climate change.
 * We will discuss the suspected presence of a parasite that caused the penguins to get malaria in 2008, but didn't affect their populations too negatively as the main endemic penguins were not affected. Still, it posed a threat to their already stressful chances of survival.
 * Possible sources: https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/445#:~:text=On%20July%201st%20the%20Gal%C3%A1pagos,of%20diseases%20in%20Gal%C3%A1pagos%20birds.
 * https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320709002729?casa_token=r-U4nXDSYPMAAAAA:Hhdujpp5A0V-pIFocU8IwOqalRwW06jRaYcz1_OkQzxVzfDtUZez78ZlYniZtKRqMMLySCuMyg
 * During the El Nino season, breeding rates slow down as food becomes scarce; competition for food makes it challenging for penguins to survive. In addition, El Nino has the potential to alter regular ocean currents around the Galapagos, adding a potentially difficult task for penguins hunting for food. Lastly, we would mention the nest flooding that occurs during this season, the loss of offspring and food resources.
 * The Galapagos penguins show nature’s flexibility and ability to adapt and flourish in unexpected circumstances or environments.
 * The penguins' breeding patterns depend on finding suitable nesting places within the volcanic landscape. The Galapagos penguins find refuge in the cool and dark lava caves, which provide the appropriate conditions for raising their offspring since they offer protection from the sun, ensuring survival. These arguments generally indicate specific behavioral patterns and features that enhance their adaptability in such an environment.
 * Possible sources: Rohrer, S. D., Jiménez-Uzcátegui, G., Parker, P. G., & Chubiz, L. M. (2023). Composition and function of the Galapagos penguin gut microbiome vary with age, location, and a putative bacterial pathogen. Scientific Reports, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31826-y
 * Add History Section: The Current led to the creation of an ideal place with features for sea birds.
 * For instance, Islands such as Isabela Island contained cold and nutrient-rich waters that acted as a source of food, ensuring the survival of penguins.
 * Possible sources: Loughlin, J. (2022). GALAPAGOS : a natural history second edition. Princeton University Pres

Lead (EDITED)
The Galápagos penguin (Spheniscus mendiculus) is a penguin endemic to the Galápagos Islands, Ecuador. It is the only penguin found north of the equator. Most inhabit Fernandina Island and the west coast of Isabela Island. The cool waters of the Humboldt and Cromwell Currents allow it to survive despite the tropical latitude. The Galápagos penguin is one of the banded penguins, the other species of which live mostly on the coasts of Africa and mainland South America. Due to their warm environment, Galápagos penguins have developed techniques and have evolutionary adaptations that allow them to stay cool. The feathers on their back, flippers, and head are black, and they have a white belly and a stripe looping from their eyes down to their neck and chin. Each penguin keeps only one mate, and breeds year-round. Their nests are typically in caves and crevices as protection against predators and the harsh environment. The Galápagos penguin has a lifespan of about 15 to 20 years, but due to predation, life expectancy in the wild could be significantly reduced. They have been critically impacted to the point of endangerment by climate change and pollution caused by plastic waste due to tourism and urbanization.

Breeding and Reproduction (EDITED)
Galápagos penguins are a monogamous species, each pair mating for life. There are around 1,000 breeding pairs of Galápagos penguins in the world, and breeding depends on certain climate events. During El Niño, birds may not breed due to these climate conditions. After completing courtship, with rituals including bill dueling, flipper patting, and mutual preening, the pair will build and maintain a nest. Most nests are seen between May and July because both quantity of food and climate conditions are typically most optimal. The nests are made within 50 m of the water on the shore. Adults stay near the breeding area during the year with their mate. It lays one or two eggs in places such as caves and crevices, protected from direct sunlight, which can cause the eggs to overheat. Temperature of surface water also influences reproduction as they prefer temperatures between 17–22 °C (62.6–71.6 °F) to incubate, above 25 °C (77 °F) causes their nests to fail. Incubation takes 38–40 days, with both parents incubating.

One parent will always stay with the eggs or young chicks while the other may be absent for several days to feed. A pair usually rears only one chick. Galápagos penguins will molt before they breed, and are the only penguins to do this twice a year. Molting takes up to 15 days to complete. They do this for their own safety, as food availability in the Galápagos is typically unpredictable. If there is not enough food available, they may abandon the nest.

It takes about 60–65 days for the chicks to become independent. Newly hatched chicks have downy feathers that do not become waterproof until the chicks grow into juveniles. The juvenile plumage, attained by thirty days after a chick hatches, is dark brown or gray above and white below. These feathers are mainly needed to protect the chicks from the strong sun rather than keep them warm.

Bermudian naturalist Louis L. Mowbray was the first to successfully breed the Galápagos penguins in captivity.


 * "There are fewer than 1,000 breeding pairs of Galápagos penguins in the world" -possible citation? https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0964569120303367?via%3Dihub The number of successfully born offspring and mass of reproductive females depends on the La Nina and El Nino seasons.

Population (EDITED)
Galápagos penguins have a lifespan ranging from 15 to 20 years, but because of environmental factors and predation, their life expectancy is reduced. They are listed on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as Endangered. In 2003 there were an estimated 1,351 penguins and as of 2018 there are around 1,200 mature penguins left. It is currently one of the rarest penguin species, next to another penguin species, the yellow-eyed penguin.

The population size on average is about 1,500 individuals per year, depending on the climate events. Population trends were seen to increase and decrease in a span of a year due to La Niña and El Niño events. After a La Niña event, both population size and reproduction were both seen to have an increase in number. El Niño events have been found to reduce Galapagos penguin populations, in some cases nearly as much as 50% decrease was seen in population size. This is due to the warmer climate disrupting the cold water that holds the nutrients that support the marine ecosystem.

In a study conducted on the penguins in 1970 there was 1,589 observed penguins over 60% of the Galapagos


 * Source: Plasmodium blood parasite found in endangered Galapagos penguins (Spheniscus mendiculus)
 * https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320709002729#:~:text=Phylogenetic%20analyses%20place%20this%20parasite,morbidity%20in%20captive%20penguin%20populations.
 * " El Niño events reduce populations of the Galapagos penguin by as much as 50% (Vargas et al., 2006), as warmer waters disrupt upwelling of nutrient-rich cold water that supports the marine ecosystem. The current population of Galapagos penguins is approximately 1500 individuals (Jiménez-Uzcátegui and Vargas, 2008)."
 * Source: Low MHC variation in the endangered Galápagos penguin (Spheniscus mendiculus)
 * https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17457582/


 * Source: Population Trends of the Galápagos Penguin: Impacts of El Niño and La Niña
 *  https://www-jstor-org.brooklyn.ezproxy.cuny.edu/stable/1370265?sid=primo&seq=4 
 * https://academic.oup.com/condor/article/100/2/245/5126272
 * "Surface water temperature was a good predictor of reproduction. During the months when penguins were breeding in 1970 through 1972, surface water temperature ranged from 170C to 270C with a mean (? SD) of 22 ? 1C. Penguins were significantly more likely to breed when surface temperatures were - 22?C than when temperatures were warmer (t30 = 5.9, P < 0.001). All nests failed and courtship ceased when mean (? SD) surface water temperature rose to 25"
 * "In 1970, I censused approximately 60% of the coast where penguins occur and observed 1,589 penguins. In 1971, I censused approximately 83% of the coast with penguins and counted 1,888 penguins"
 * "Body condition as evidenced by weight is enhanced during cold surface water conditions, La Nina, and deteriorates when surface waters are warmed, El Nino, and under the most severe conditions, penguins starve"


 * Source: Population size and trends of the Galápagos Penguin Spheniscus mendiculus
 *  https://onlinelibrary-wiley-com.brooklyn.ezproxy.cuny.edu/doi/full/10.1111/j.1474-919x.2005.00412.x 
 * "We estimated that between 1970 and 2003, the Galápagos Penguin population size fluctuated between 699 (95% CI = 618–811) and 3386 (95% CI = 2967–3990) individuals (Fig. 2, Appendix 1). The 2003 population was estimated at 1351 (95% CI = 1188–1583) individuals (Fig. 2, Appendix 1). Census counts and corresponding estimates of population size indicated an overall larger population in the first three counts (1970, 1971 and 1980), and relatively smaller populations after 1980 (Fig. 2). The population reached its lowest levels after the two major population crashes in 1983 and in 1998 (Fig. 2)."

Tourism (NEW HEADING)

 * Tourism is a prominent practice that occurs in the Galapagos and brings in billions of dollars in revenue for the islands. Due to the fact that the Galapagos penguins are only found within these islands, it is not uncommon for people to go on the search for these penguins. There are tutorials that can be found on the process to find these endemic penguins on the Galapagos Islands. There is a website in which you are able to adopt a Galapagos penguin for purchase as well. Because this practice is not only very well known but done often by many who visit the islands home to these birds, tourism is an example of how urbanization is inadvertently and directly affecting the Galapagos and the species that inhabit the islands, including the Galapagos penguins. When incorrectly executed and poorly managed, tourism can lead to reproductive failure, burrow collapse, or even death to these animals.
 * Source on what can happen: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0964569120303367?via%3Dihub
 * Website on how to find penguins: https://gohobo.net/ecuador/Top-4-Places-To-See-Galapagos-Penguins
 * Adopt a penguin: https://galapagosconservation.org.uk/shop/merchandise/wildlife-adoptions/galapagos-penguin-adoption/

Disease (EDITED)
Another potential threat to the Galápagos penguin is disease. Preliminary studies, such as one conducted in 2001, found no evidence of Avian malaria or Marek’s disease in Galápagos penguin populations. Despite these findings, the researchers recommended further observations, citing the death of 800 chickens in the Galápagos Islands from Marek’s disease, the presence of mosquitos known to carry Avian malaria, and the known impacts of these diseases on other endemic bird populations in Hawaii. Later, a 2009 study revealed the presence of a species of Plasmodium in Galápagos penguins, a genus of blood parasite that causes Avian malaria. The presence of this parasite suggests that diseases are able to travel from other populations to the isolated Galápagos penguin communities and is likely a cause for population decline. Further research suggests that cross-species transmission may occur between endemic Galápagos species and migratory birds such as the Bobolink. Understanding how these diseases reach the Galápagos Islands and transmit between its bird species is a focus for developing conservation strategies for endangered species such as the Galápagos penguin.

Ecology and Behavior (EDITING)
"Expand on the relationship between the Galápagos penguins and the Galápagos islands, specifically Fernandina Island and Isabela Island which they inhabit the most. How they affect their environment, and how they have adapted to the island's conditions. As well as how environmental factors have affected their life expectancy and population."

(Can be edited into first paragraph)

They play an important role in regulating the populations of the marine species they consume. At the same time, the adult Galapagos penguins are a food source for other predators such as sharks and whales. They are considered keystone species due to their contributions to the ecosystem.

Endangerment and Conservation Status (EDITING)
In terms of conservation, the Galapagos penguins are protected under the Antarctic Treaty of 1959, which includes all 18 penguin species. Galapagos Penguins live in the Galapagos Islands and they are protected under Ecuadorian jurisdiction. The Directorate of the Galapagos National Park and the Galapagos Marine Reserve are two important factors that are responsible for protecting the islands including the Galapagos Penguins. They share a responsibility for preserving species living in the islands including the Galapagos Penguin. They were able to accomplish this through limiting human activity and interference from outside factors such as fishing and introducing new species to the island.

Relationship between Galápagos Penguins and the Galápagos Islands[edit]
The Galápagos penguin are unique to the Galápagos Islands, predominantly inhabiting Fernandina Island and Isabela Island. These islands offer an environment crucial for these birds' survival and proliferation.

Habitat and Interaction with the Environment[edit]
The Galápagos penguins have a symbiotic relationship with their habitat. Fernandina and Isabela Islands provide rocky coastlines ideal for nesting, and the surrounding waters, enriched by the Cromwell Current, abound with fish and crustaceans that form their diet. This feeding habit plays a pivotal role in the local marine ecosystem. They help balance the marine food web and contribute to nutrient cycling. The guano produced by these penguins is a rich fertilizer, enhancing the fertility of the coastal soil and indirectly supporting certain plant species native to the islands.

Adaptation to Island Conditions[edit]
Adapting to the equatorial climate of the Galápagos, these penguins exhibit unique behavioral and physiological traits. Unlike their Antarctic counterparts, they have evolved to withstand warmer temperatures. They pant and seek shade during the hottest parts of the day to regulate body temperature. Physiologically, they have a reduced layer of body fat and smaller size, aiding heat dissipation.

Breeding adaptations are also noteworthy. Galápagos penguins breed throughout the year, capitalizing on the fluctuating availability of food resources linked to ocean currents. This flexibility in breeding patterns is a critical adaptation for survival in an environment where food availability is inconsistent.

Impact of Environmental Factors on Life Expectancy and Population[edit]
Environmental conditions significantly influence the life expectancy and population numbers of Galápagos penguins. Climate events like El Niño significantly affect the marine ecosystem, reducing food availability. During such events, penguin populations face starvation, reduced breeding success, and increased mortality. Furthermore, human-induced factors such as pollution, oil spills, and fishing activities pose additional threats to their survival.

Conservation efforts are crucial for protecting these penguins, which are classified as endangered by the IUCN Red List. Measures include monitoring population trends, habitat preservation, and mitigating human impacts. These efforts are essential to ensure the survival of the Galápagos penguin, a species integral to the biodiversity and ecological balance of the Galápagos Islands.