User:Bekuzak02/The History Of Byzantium

The history of Byzantium covers the period from the founding of the city in the VII century BC to 330, when the Roman Emperor Constantine I the Great moved the capital of his Empire to Byzantium. Since ancient times, the Bosphorus has been a strategically important trade artery, and the control of its shores promised an advantage over competitors in the entire black sea trade. Founded in the middle of the VII century BC by megarian colonists, Byzantium, thanks to its favorable location, quickly turned into an important trading center of the ancient world. Having suffered greatly during the Greco-Persian wars, Byzantium later became the scene of a sharp struggle between Athens and Sparta, several times passing from hand to hand of these powerful powers. With the growing importance of trade in the economy of Byzantium, the role of the landowner aristocracy decreased, and the democratically minded layer of merchants and sailors, on the contrary, strengthened its position. Having achieved independence from Athens and having become rich on intermediary trade, Byzantines faced territorial claims from Macedonia gaining strength.

In the Hellenistic era, the city has long maintained its independence, but waged frequent wars with both alien tribes and other Greek States. Once under the control of Rome, the prosperous Byzantium for a long time enjoyed internal autonomy, until after a long siege was destroyed by Emperor Septimus North. Never recovered from this disaster, under Emperor Constantine I the Great, the city became the site of the new capital of the Roman Empire — Constantinople.

Development of the Bosphorus and the first settlements
☁The first settlements on the territory of modern Istanbul appeared in the Neolithic period (approximately between 6400 and 5800 BC). Even then, the locals cultivated the land, bred cattle and fished on the banks of the river that flowed on the site of the present Bosphorus and emptied into the inner lake that existed on the site of the present sea of Marmara. Later, when the Phoenician and Greek merchants began to master the sea trade route from the Aegean to the Black sea, on the banks of the Bosphorus there were their first warehouses of goods and small fortified settlements that provided the needs of seafarers. The Phoenicians called the Black sea Ashkenas ("Sea of the North"), and the ancient Greeks — Pontus euxinus ("hospitable Sea"). According to ancient Greek mythology, when IO, the daughter of INAH, the goddess Hera, was crossing the Bosphorus, she was jealous of Zeus and turned the beauty into a cow, which is why the Strait was called "cow passage" or "cow Ford". Discovered by ancient sailors convenient Bay, deeply cut into the land at the confluence of the Bosphorus with the waters of the sea of Marmara, they called the Golden Horn (Strabo called it the Horn of Byzantium).

Already the legends about the Argonauts and Simplegeo indicate that the ancient Greeks were familiar path through the Straits to Colchis. The ancient historians hecataeus of Miletus and Hellenic, as well as the poets Eumel of Corinth and Hesiod, wrote about the voyages of Greek ships in the waters of Pontus. The ships of the Greek Polis carried Handicrafts (ceramic vases, edged weapons, fabrics), wine and olive oil to the Northern black sea coast, and back — grain, drill and ship timber, cattle, furs, salted fish, honey and wax, as well as slaves. Full-scale development of the Greek coast of Hellespont, Propontis and the Bosphorus of Thrace began in the era of "great colonization" (VIII—VII century BC). Championship in the population of this region belonged to the natives of Miletus, who founded kizikum, Artak, Prokonnis and Marion, and a few days later Abydos, Lampsak, Columns, Priapus and Chios. A second wave of colonization headed by allies of milette come from Megar, a highly developed trade and handicraft center, founded the Children (Astak) and Selymbria. In the development of the Northern coast of the Propontis were also enemies of megarave come from Samos, who founded Migdonio (Perint).

The Foundation Of Byzantiumantium
Approximately in 685 BC (according to other sources — about 675 BC) megarian colonists tried to settle on the Bank of the Golden Horn. But soon they were forced to move to the Asian Bank of the Bosphorus and establish another colony there — chalcedony (Chalcedony). According to one version, the reason was the inability of small immigrants to resist the local Thracian tribes. Herodotus called the chalcedonians "blind" who did not see the strategic value of The Golden Horn area with its natural Harbor, abundance of fish (especially tuna), fertile soils and rich forests. However, most modern researchers the main reason for the Foundation of Chalcedon is the presence in those places of fairly large deposits of copper ore (χαλκός in Greek copper). A new group of colonists, most of whom were immigrants from Megar, after the victory over the Thracians in 660 BC (according to other sources — in 659 or 657 BC) still founded a city called Byzantium antium.

With the history of the choice of location for the Byzantine Empire is associated with many of the Greek legends. According to one of them, the founder of the city was a brave warrior and hunter byzant — son of Poseidon and nymph Keroessa, daughter of Zeus and IO (his name he was obliged to nursed him in Thrace nymph Visia). When the Vizant made another sacrifice, the eagle appeared and grabbed the heart of the sacrificial bull and took it to the promontory of the Bosphorus. Byzantus took it for a divine predestination and founded on this Cape city, named in his honor (according to many modern scientists, the byzantus — only a mythical figure, and he gave the name of the city, and the name of the city served as the basis for further creation of the image of the eponymous hero). According to Dionysius of Byzantium, the Byzantine was a member of the expedition of the Argonauts, and according to Diodorus of Sicily, he hosted the Argonauts already as king. In the exposition of Herodotus and Eusebius, before sailing according to ancient custom, the Byzantine turned to the Delphic Oracle, who answered the commander with a prophecy: "Happy will be those who will settle in that Holy city, on the Thracian Cape, everywhere washed by water, at the mouth of the Pontus, where fish and deer are found in abundance…»

Moored to the European shore of the Bosphorus, the byzantus camped between the mouths of the rivers Kidaris and Barbis, having begun to put in such cases sacrifice. The flying kite (or Raven) grabbed the animal and took it to the Cape, which forced the Byzantine to change its original plan and lay the city on a hill near the Strait. According to Strabo and Tacitus, who echoed him, when the megarians turned to the Oracle for advice on the location of the future colony, he replied: "Build a city opposite the blind." Arriving at the site, the Byzantine realized that the Oracle meant the colonists who founded Chalcedon on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus, and ordered to lay the city in front of them. The place where the ships of the first colonists landed, in ancient Byzantium was called Hestia, and later on this place altars were built (according to one legend, they were altars of each of the cities that participated in the Foundation of the colony, on the other — they were altars of seven noble megarian families). With high probability it can be argued that among the first settlers who settled in Byzantium, were also immigrants from Boeotia, Corinth and Argos (through the Argos in the city spread the cults of Hera and Zeus Athasius). According to Aristotle, when a fairly significant layer of new immigrants (Apalkov) openly opposed full citizens of Byzantium, those force drove Apalkov outside the city.steu Ponta, where in abundance are found fish and deer…»

The favorable location on the Bosphorus Cape and favorable natural conditions allowed Byzantium to quickly become one of the most significant Greek colonies of Propontis and Pontus. Here settled sailors and fishermen, merchants and artisans, which contributed to the growth of the population of the city. Megara acted as a resettlement centre, which organized and directed the flow of colonists to Byzantium. The Greeks waged a bitter struggle with inhabiting the region of the Thracian tribes (especially with the militant finami), which was repeatedly besieged by the city, attacked merchant ships and merchant caravans and was established on the shores of the Bosphorus and the Golden Horn false lights to lure ships into a trap. Several times the fleet of neighboring Chalcedon came to the aid of Byzantium. After a series of battles, most of the Thracians have left this country, and the rest recognized the authority of the Greeks, the Byzantine Empire (Apina, citing Filarga, argued that the Byzantines dominated the enslaved Thracians, like the Spartans over helots). The Acropolis of ancient Byzantium was located on the site of the current Topkapi Palace, or rather — around the Church of St. Irene, where there were numerous temples, a stadium and gymnasiums. The promontory between the Bosphorus and the place where today is the start of the Galata bridge, there were three harbour who served in the classical and Hellenistic periods of the port of The favorable location on the Bosphorus Cape and favorable natural conditions allowed Byzantium to quickly become one of the most significant Greek colonies of Propontis and Pontus. Here settled sailors and fishermen, merchants and artisans, which contributed to the growth of the population of the city. Megara acted as a resettlement centre, which organized and directed the flow of colonists to Byzantium. The Greeks waged a bitter struggle with inhabiting the region of the Thracian tribes (especially with the militant finami), which was repeatedly besieged by the city, attacked merchant ships and merchant caravans and was established on the shores of the Bosphorus and the Golden Horn false lights to lure ships into a trap. Several times the fleet of neighboring Chalcedon came to the aid of Byzantium. After a series of battles, most of the Thracians have left this country, and the rest recognized the authority of the Greeks, the Byzantine Empire (Apina, citing Filarga, argued that the Byzantines dominated the enslaved Thracians, like the Spartans over helots). The Acropolis of ancient Byzantium was located on the site of the current Topkapi Palace, or rather — around the Church of St. Irene, where there were numerous temples, a stadium and gymnasiums. The promontory between the Bosphorus and the place where today is the start of the Galata bridge, there were three harbour who served in the classical and Hellenistic periods of the port of Byzantium Vyzantium.

Already the first inhabitants of Byzantium surrounded the city with powerful stone walls with watchtowers and surrounded it with deep ditches (the most inaccessible areas covered the Cape from the land). Pausanias wrote that only the Grand walls of Mesini surpassed the fortifications of Byzantium. There was even a legend that the walls of the city were built with the help of Poseidon and Apollo, and therefore they were called "God-given". Around the city there were fields, vineyards, gardens and pastures, according to Dionysius, Byzantine and Polybius, here gathered good harvests of grain, figs, mulberries, figs, fruits of strawberry tree was growing Laurel and cypress in the forests there were wild boars and deer, in the waters of the Bosphorus and both seas and lots of fish, oysters and crayfish (very soon the merchants of Byzantium began to export salted fish for sale in a neighboring town), in the vicinity of mined gold and copper. Even the coins of Byzantium depicted tuna, bull and Dolphin (the last two animals — as elements of the coat of arms of the city). In Byzantium there was a Fund of state (city) land, which was divided into plots and processed by state slaves attached to them. But the main role was played by trade, both sea (from the Mediterranean to the Black sea) and land (from India and Central Asia to Europe), which allowed Byzantium (despite the hostility of the barbarian tribes surrounding the city, and the lack of fresh water) to rise among other Greek colonies of Propontis and Pontus. The more developed the sea communication between the cities of Ancient Greece and the black sea colonies, the more important was the beautiful natural Harbor of the Golden Horn, which allowed ships to hide from the weather. Not a single merchant ship, EN route through the Bosphorus, could not without the consent of the authorities of the Romans and paying taxes to avoid the city.

At the end of VII — beginning of VI century BC natives of Byzantium and Chalcedon have themselves participated in the settlement of megarian colonies in the black sea, in particular, Mesembria. During this period, the Pontic trade has not yet reached a large turnover, but with the expansion of the colonization of the black sea its volume is constantly growing. Byzantium gradually grew more distant from Megara, but in the city until the beginning of our era, was preserved in some institutions, cults and toponyms, brought the first settlers from the metropolis. For example, a great influence was used by the cults of Demeter and Artemis Malophoros Ortisei, as well as some other cults of gods and heroes (of Hippocrene and Saron), characteristic for Megar. The civil team was divided into "hundreds", which was also taken from the Megara and was specific to their colonies. Obtaining Byzantine citizenship was accompanied by a mandatory entry of a new citizen in a hundred, any, according to his choice (in addition, the population of Byzantium, as well as any Doric city, was divided into Philae, phratries and thioses, who had their public lands). However, the megarian element were not originally dominant in the Byzantine Empire, and over time, more and more "diluted" by the influx of new settlers poured in composition of the population policy in the period of its economic prosperity.

The era of the Greco-Persian wars
The campaigns of the Persian kings Cyrus II and Cambyses II led to the formation of a huge power whose borders stretched from the shores of the Hellespont to the Indus and from the rapids of the Nile to the shores of the Black and Caspian seas. Under the power of Persia were the Greek cities of Asia Minor, actively trading with Byzantium (according to some reports, in particular, the story of Herodotus, and Byzantium itself was under the protectorate of the Achaemenids). In 512 BC Darius I undertook a great campaign against the Scythians, the purpose of which was to establish the power of the Persians over the Balkans and the black sea Straits. After the crossing of the troops of Darius across the Bosphorus, when in the narrowest place of the Strait was built a bridge, the Persians conquered Byzantium. According to one source, abandoned by the inhabitants of the city was destroyed to the ground, on the other, the inhabitants of Byzantium recognized the power of the Persians and helped them in the construction of the crossing. And although the Scythian campaign ended in failure for Darius, the Persians still managed to capture the shores of Hellespont and the coast of Thrace, cutting off the Greeks from the vital Pontus for them.

The establishment of Persian control over the Straits interrupted megar's long Association with Byzantium and Chalcedon, undermined the Maritime trade of the Greek metropolis and gradually led to the decline of the Megar economy, which depended heavily on contacts with its colonies. However, the Persian rule over the conquered lands was not so cloudless. Many Greek cities rebelled against the Achaemenids; the troops of commander Megabase left by Darius in Europe, even had to take by storm Perip (former Migdonia) and the power to subdue the rest of the policies. Soon another Persian commander, otana, again faced the desire of the Greek colonies in Thrace and on the shores of the black sea Straits for independence. Again, the Persians suppressed the uprising by force, this time capturing Byzantium and Chalcedon (a significant part of the conquered population was enslaved). When in 499 BC the Ionian revolt broke out, one of the main goals of the Greeks was the liberation of the Hellespont and the Bosphorus from Persian control, because the trade of the Ionian cities and Athens with the Pontus almost stopped, being in the hands of their eternal rivals — the Phoenicians who became allies of the Persians.

At the initial stage of the uprising, the Ionian Greeks liberated from the Persians almost all important cities on the Hellespont and the Bosphorus, including Byzantium, where the Milesian tyrant Histia was established. He captured merchant ships sailing through the Strait, participated in small skirmishes with the Persian troops, but when he learned about the fate of the destroyed Achaemenids Miletus, he left the Byzantines and was soon executed. For 494-493 BC the Persian army, with the support of the Phoenician fleet regained its dominion on the coast of Asia Minor, the shores of the Hellespont, the Propontis and the Bosporus, destroying Pering, Selymbria and Byzantium (brutal massacre repaired mainly by the Phoenicians, whom the Persians had trusted a punitive operation in the rebellious Greek colonies). According to Herodotus, part of the inhabitants of Byzantium and Chalcedon, especially among the merchants, still fled to Mesembria.

For more than ten years Byzantium was under the rule of a large Persian garrison, which exercised strict control over the trade route through the Bosphorus. As Herodotus wrote, Xerxes I, during the preparation of the crossing of the Hellespont, saw with his own eyes the caravans of ships loaded with grain, going from Pontus to Greece and Asia Minor, and perfectly understood the importance of domination over the Straits. After the victories of Plataea and Mycale in 479 BC the Greeks began to liberate the black sea Straits (commander Artabaz I fled from Greece to Asia not through the Hellespont, and through Byzantium, turned Persians in its stronghold). In the spring of 478 BC the Greek allied fleet under the command of Spartan commander Pausanius moved to Hellespont and after a short siege captured Byzantium. From now on, the struggle for control of the city broke out between Athens and Sparta (the interests of the latter became the tyrant of Byzantium Pausanias). Ancient historians differently cover the term of Pausanias ' rule: some argue that his power over Byzantium lasted no more than a year, others believe that he ruled for about seven or ten years.

The age of confrontation between Athens and Sparta
Athens and its strong fleet were traditionally associated with Pontic trade, depending on the supply of Pontic grain, and Sparta led quite a small trade in the East. Once revered Pausanias began to lead a rampant life, turning from a brave commander in a haughty and ambitious politician. He negotiated an Alliance with the Persians, wanted to marry a Persian Princess, released all the noble Persians captured during the capture of Byzantium, and even dreamed of becoming the ruler of Sparta, than set against himself not only ordinary residents of the city, but also his former allies. Learn about the secret contacts of my Affairs with the enemy, the authorities of Sparta Pausanias was summoned home, where he was able, however, to seek justification (left, left Pausanias in Byzantium instead of Eretria of Gongala, who commanded the garrison, and aimed instead Pausanias the Spartan Dorkis the allies). Soon Pausanias without the permission of the Spartan government returned to Byzantium, but could not hold power in the city (in fact, Athens turned a blind eye to the presence of Pausanias in Byzantium, which, moreover, his struggle for power weakened the forces of Sparta). As a result, Pausanias was forced to return to his homeland, where in 467 BC and took a painful death.

Meanwhile, Athens was considered the time favourable, and approximately 470-469 BC captured Byzantium, joined to the Athenian sea Union. The fleet of Athenians dominated the sea and strongly suppressed the attempts of the allied cities to achieve independence. Under the control of Athens were trade Union of cities and the sea route through the Bosporus, and Byzantium began to play the role of a reference point of the Athenian naval Alliance in the black sea trade (especially with the Bosporus and Dresskim kingdoms). The middle of the V century BC was a time of rapid growth and prosperity of the city. In the Harbor were built warehouses for storage of goods, trading life is so animated that came into use widely word προυνίκους — loader (this profession was so typical of Byzantium that the name "loader" has become a nickname for the Byzantines themselves), and the duty for the right of entry into the port became the main source of wealth of Byzantium (at this time there was a custom to grant foreigners in the form of honorary privilege of the right of free use of the Harbor of the city). Previously played a leading role in the life of Byzantium and the surrounding landowners gradually gave way to the nobility of merchants, artisans and sailors (thus the alien elements pushed the descendants of the first colonists, who formed the backbone of the local aristocracy). Byzantium was among those cities of the Athenian Maritime Union, which for a long time paid Athens the largest foros (more paid only Thassos, Paros and Aegina, and, for example, the neighboring Chalcedon paid almost half as much as Byzantium). Ships and soldiers of Byzantium participated in military expeditions of Athens to pacify the rebellious cities of the Maritime power.

Following the example of Athens in the Byzantine Empire was the replacement of oligarchic rule, the slave democracy, accompanied by acute social struggle between the landed aristocracy and the demos. The bearer of Supreme power was all the free population of the city, the people's Assembly passed laws, declared war and concluded a truce, was in charge of international relations (with the Thracian tribes and the Greek States), the sale and lease of public land, established taxes and monopolies on some activities, granted civil rights. The second most important legislative body was the Council (Ancient Greek: βουλά), whose recommendations and decisions were subject to approval by the people's Assembly. Some of the former oligarchs adopted the new order and engaged in trade, but many were hostile and harbored resentment. The case to oppose democracy and Athens was presented to them during the uprising, raised by the oligarchs of Samos, who dreamed of taking away the hegemony of the Athenians in the Aegean sea and hatched plans to establish control over the black sea Straits (for this Samoans enlisted the support of the Persians and part of the Byzantine oligarchs, dissatisfied with democracy). When in 440-439 BC the Samos oligarchs openly rebelled against Athens, Byzantium supported the rebels. The city was not actively involved in the war, but announced its withdrawal from the Union and refused to make foros in the Union Treasury. After the suppression of the revolt of Samos was severely punished, but Byzantium managed to avoid the brutal punishment (Athens, concerned the loyalty of the Byzantine elite, only slightly increased the amount of foros (less than three talent) and tore away from the Byzantine Empire some of his possession, in particular, the city of Gallipoli, after which Byzantium was again an important trading center of power).

In the run-up to and years of the Peloponnesian war, the importance of the trade route through the black sea Straits increased dramatically, and Athens tightened control over the Hellespont and the Bosphorus. The guard service (έλλησποντοφύλακες) strictly monitored that only the ships of the Athenians and their allies passed through the Straits. In the port of Byzantium brought all the grain from the shores of the Northern black sea coast, and from here it was distributed to the cities of the Athenian Maritime Union. In 416 BC, the Byzantine troops backed by detachments of the Thracians inflicted a heavy defeat on vivenza, attacked the Union of Chalcedon. After the defeat in the Sicilian expedition had ended the period of unchallenged dominion of Athens at sea, and Athenian sea Union began to disintegrate (in 412 BC on the side of Sparta passed Chios, Lesbos, Erythrai, Klazomenai, TEOS, and Miletus). In 411 BC, a small squadron under the command of the megarian commander Helix easily captured Byzantium, long fueled discontent with financial levies and trade restrictions of Athens (in 430 BC the amount of foros exceeded 21 talent, and in 413 BC foros was replaced by a five percent duty on all imported and exported goods). The Straits came under the control of Sparta, the Supreme power in Byzantium was in the hands of Spartan Governor Clearch, who did not interfere too much in the internal Affairs of the city, and Chalcedon captured the Persians.

Anticipating the threat of a hungry blockade and the depletion of its Treasury from the loss of control over the Straits, Athens gathered all its surviving warships and equipped the expedition to release the most important trade artery for them. After several naval battles in late 411-early 410 BC (especially in the key battle of Kizik), the Athenians defeated the Peloponnesian fleet, which was supported by the Persians. Expelling the Spartans from the Straits, the commander Alcibiades began to besiege the well-fortified Byzantium, and was built in the narrowest place of the Bosphorus (at Chrysopoeia on the Asian shore) strengthened customs. The place was chosen very well, as a strong current carried passing ships to the coastal fortress, which reduced the opportunity to swim past the customs unnoticed to a minimum. The Athenians levied a ten percent duty on the cost of all goods carried, demonstrating the seriousness of their intentions with the help of a squadron of 30 ships constantly cruising along the Bosphorus. The Straits were again under the control of Athens, and the value of the Spartan presence in Byzantium came to naught.

In 408 BC, after Alcibiades defeated the Persian satraps of Asia Minor Barnabas and restore the power of Athens over the Chalcedon, his fleet began the siege of Byzantium. Soon the garrison of Clearchus, consisting of Spartans, beotians and megarians, faced the threat of hunger and confiscated the city's food supplies, which caused anti-Spartan sentiments among the inhabitants of Byzantium. Took advantage of Alcibiades, who established contact with the unhappy presence of the Spartan citizens (among them were many merchants, who have suffered considerable losses from the presence of the Athenian custom at Chrysopelea). Clearchus, handed over command of the allied generals Helics and Karatedo, went to ask for money from Pharmabase. The Athenians resorted to military cunning: pretended to lift the siege and began to withdraw the fleet, and themselves at night launched an attack on the Harbor. While the garrison repelled the threat from the sea, allies alkiviada opened the gate from the land, and the Byzantines broke waiting for this moment Athenian soldiers (according to Diodorus — climbed over the walls). In the street battles was attended not only by the Spartans and the Athenians, but the supporters of both camps from among the Byzantines. When Alcibiades announced that in the event of the cessation of resistance none of the inhabitants of Byzantium will not be punished by the winners, the scales leaned on the side of the Athenians, who easily destroyed the Spartan garrison.

At the end of the Peloponnesian war, the Spartans still established their dominance in the Aegean and Marmara seas. In 405 BC their fleet under the command of Lysander captured Byzantium, using the help of supporters of Sparta from among the local oligarchs who opened the gates of the city. Part of the population of Byzantium, who supported democracy, managed to flee to Athens and the Bosporus Kingdom (not had significant resistance and surrendered soldiers of the garrison were sent to Athens). The Spartans did not hesitate to destroy the democratic system and restored the power of the oligarchy, but the real master of the city became the Spartan Governor (accordion), who ruled with the help of controlled government. The cessation of trade with Athens had a negative impact on the well-being of a large number of local traders, artisans and port workers. The discontent of the demos, the excitement surrounding Thracian tribes, exploited the internal strife among the Byzantines, and unreliable mercenary army, partly manned from the same of the Thracians, led to the fact that the feared revolt of the oligarchs Byzantium sought to increase the Spartan garrison and return to town a friend of his Clearhe.

Clearch, at the head of a large detachment of Spartans entered the Byzantines, gathered at a meeting of all the local commanders and suddenly interrupted them. He then executed many representatives of the civil authorities, who had previously shown antispasticski or democratic sentiment, and also killed or expelled from the Byzantine Empire many of the rich citizens, giving them the property. The tyranny of Clearchus was so cruel that soon even part of the oligarchic party, which began to send complaints to Sparta, turned against him. Too independent the Governor of Byzantium even quarreled with the Spartan government, and in 403 BC, he was expelled from the city in a new garmston Papadom. Gradually Byzantium turned into an important military Outpost of Sparta and the home of the Spartan fleet. From the end of the V century BC until the reign of the Emperor Gallienus, Byzantium minted his coin with small breaks (during the Greco-Persian wars of all major Greek cities only Sparta and Byzantium minted their coin; in Byzantium, this was due to the monopoly position of the Kizik stater, but with the growth of the commercial value of the city, the authorities began to issue their own coins). Byzantium minted silver, copper and iron (as in Sparta, Megara and Argos) coins. Silver was used for calculations with other States, for the payment of foros, the tribute and salary of the troops, but copper and iron were used only inside cities (iron money was minted mainly in times of war and financial difficulties).

In 400 BC in Byzantium there were clashes between Spartans and Greek mercenaries who participated in the campaign of the Persian Satrap of Asia Minor Cyrus the Younger (they were recruited with the tacit consent of Sparta in various cities of the Peloponnese, many of them were immigrants from Sparta). After the death of Cyrus and clearchus, who joined him, mercenary groups under the command of Xenophon reached Byzantium, but the commander of the Spartan fleet (navarch) Anaxibius and the Governor of the city of Cleander under the pretext of military construction led them outside the city walls and closed the gate in front of them. Then mercenaries force broke through the defense of Byzantium, subjected the city to plunder and soon moved to Thrace. Internal turmoil, frequent changes of power and the siege of external enemies, as well as the loss of the Athenian grain market led to the decline of trade and crafts Byzantium, which was previously famous for it as a mediator in the Pontic grain trade between Athens and the Bosporus Kingdom (the volume of the market of Sparta did not go to any comparison with the capacious market of Athens; for the Spartans Straits and Byzantines were mainly strategic, not economic importance). Every year of Spartan rule in the Straits the Treasury of Byzantium became more and more empty, deprived of the inflow of trade and port charges, which led to the strengthening of Pro-Athenian sentiments among the inhabitants of the city.

During the Corinthian war, Athens was able to restore its fleet and deprive Sparta of superiority at sea. In 389 BC, the inhabitants of Byzantium were glad to meet most of the Athenian squadron under the command Trasibulo, who expelled the Spartan Governor, he abolished the oligarchic system and returned to democratic rule. Razibul established in Byzantium, a new customs charge with merchant vessels ten percent fee for passage through Straits and the right of levying this duty, the Athenians gave at the mercy of the Byzantines. Thus Athens regained control of the black sea Straits, vital for their trade, increased the commercial importance of Byzantium and, accordingly, the well-being of its inhabitants, as well as created a very important link with Byzantium, based on mutual economic interest. The revival of trade and crafts led to the onset of a new wave of growth and prosperity. Merchants of Byzantium had contacts not only with long-time partners (cities of mainland Greece, Propontis And Pontus euxin), but also actively developed relatively new markets (shopping centers of Asia Minor and the southern Aegean sea). Many Byzantine merchants of Athens gave proxenia and other benefits. Increased the role of money changers and moneylenders: the numerous money-changing shops (τραπέζαι) not only dealt with the exchange of money, but also credited the merchants and the city authorities, and also participated in the mercy of customs duties for passage through the Straits (the system of farming existed in the loan business, when a money-changing office or unification've farmed out the entire market of exchange of money and the associated operations).

After conclusion Antalcidas peace (387 BC) Byzantium was in fact an independent state and independently engage in a variety of unions (while in parallel, in Alliance with Athens). Antalcidas of the world only confirmed the autonomy that Byzantium really enjoyed. In 378 BC Byzantium and other Greek policies with a democratic system decided to conclude an Alliance with Athens, who fought with Sparta, thus creating a Second Athenian Maritime Union (the core of the Union were Chios, Mytilene and Byzantium). In contrast to the former Union, a few dozen cities now had autonomy in internal Affairs enshrined in the agreement and made voluntary contributions to the military needs of the Union, and Athens was primarily responsible for foreign policy issues. The all-Union Affairs were co-ordinated by the Athenian people's Assembly and the Sanhedrin of the allies, which constantly met in Athens. Byzantium received protection from the encroachments of Sparta and the necessary conditions for the development of trade relations. But soon the desire for hegemony prevailed, and Athens again began to interfere in the internal Affairs of Byzantium, thereby causing an increase in anti-Athenian sentiment among the citizens.

Persistent resistance made it possible for Byzantium to hold out until the arrival of reinforcements from Chios, Rhodes, KOs and Athens, which forced Philip to lift the naval siege of the city. However, he has strengthened the siege on the land side and with the help of a forged letter slandered with treason by Leon the Byzantine, who did not wait for the mob and hanged himself. The Macedonians pulled the most powerful siege weapons to the walls of Byzantium, built a bridge over the Golden horn to supply troops and ravaged all the surroundings of the city, but the allied fleet that dominated the Straits regularly delivered provisions and soldiers to Byzantium. The defenders of the city courageously repelled all the attacks of the enemy and in time eliminated the mines under the walls, and the army of Philip of Macedon began to get tired of the protracted siege. In the end, Philip II was forced to lift the siege and retreat, losing almost all of its fleet, defeated by the Athenians. But Byzantium suffered serious losses — thousands of residents were killed, many buildings were destroyed, the city walls and towers were significantly damaged. Having completed the reconstruction of the defensive ring and the damaged buildings, the inhabitants of Byzantium erected in the city a statue and a temple of Hecate the light-Bearing, which has since become the most revered goddess. According to the legend, she in the crucial night of defense of the Byzantine Empire, wanting to warn of danger, lit a torch, and defenders of the city were lifted up by barking dogs (this legend is interwoven with a similar legend about Artemis that was further reflected in the convergence of their cults, but the ancient historians give these legends as two different stories). In addition, according to Demosthenes, grateful Byzantines and perinthians put three huge marble sculptures in honor of their allies-the Athenians.

Independence and confrontation with Macedonia
In 357 BC Byzantium entered into an Alliance with some cities (Chios, Rhodes, KOs, Selymbria and Chalcedon), who, like him, sought to break the oppressive relations of Alliance with Athens. When Athens sent against them its fleet, he failed to win and take possession of Byzantium. From now on, Athens forever lost its superiority in the black sea Straits and the control of Byzantium, which grew rich on the transit trade of the Bosporan grain. Gradually important sources of income for the Byzantine Treasury became the slave trade and state monopolies on fishing, salt (this is the earliest known in the ancient world monopolies on these activities) and the exchange of money. In a timely response to the ever-increasing volume of trade, the port of Byzantium, which received ships from all the major trading centers of the Mediterranean and Black seas, was also expanding. A significant part of the revenues of the city authorities were directed to the maintenance of its own powerful fleet and a strong army, which helped Byzantium gradually expand its influence on the neighboring coastal areas of Propontis (in particular, by the middle of the IV century BC under the control of Byzantium were Chalcedon and Selimbria). In addition, considerable funds were spent on the construction of urban fortifications, berths, lighthouses and military ships, the expansion and improvement of the Harbor, the production of weapons and ammunition, as well as military campaigns against the Thracian tribes. The needs of civil construction (churches, stadiums, gymnasiums) and public holidays also required large sums, so the wealthy citizens of the authorities imposed additional fees in the form of liturgies and trierarchies.

Landowners know almost completely lost its former influence, giving primacy to the merchants, owners of ships and shops. Civil rights had a small part of the citizens as they were deprived of numerous Byzantine slaves and metics (in periods of special need the power of the Byzantine Empire sold the right of citizenship to metics, among which there are rich merchants and money lenders). Cheap slave labour, widespread in agriculture and handicraft production, had a negative impact on the situation of free peasants and artisans. Slaves worked not only in the port, on the galleys directly adjacent to the city fields and pastures, but also in the possessions of Byzantium on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus, in Mizia and Troas (about their long existence wrote Polybius and Strabo). To this period of the history of the city is the story of Hesychius of Miletus about the Byzantine strategist Protomach, who brutally suppressed the uprising of the Thracians, turning them into slavery (in commemoration of this victory in the city was even erected a bronze monument). From the second half of the IV century BC. in the result of the convergence of Byzantium with the influential Rhodes changed the weight standard of the Byzantine coins: from the Persian system, the city came to the minting of coins of the Rhodian standard. On coins, also monograms began to appear full name of the city and the names of some judges (as, for example, in the III century BC the names of Geocoder and Olimpiodor). At the turn of IV—III centuries BC property stratification of different categories of inhabitants of Byzantium (especially polar located to each other — the largest merchants and the urban poor) often led to acute social conflicts.

Only after getting stronger and reaching prosperity, Byzantium faced territorial claims from Macedonia, which established its hegemony over Greece, and the Scythians. When the troops of Philip II invaded southern Thrace, he made Byzantium as an ally in the fight against the Thracian king Kersepleptes. But, having won, the Macedonians began to openly claim dominance in the Straits. The fleet of Philip II began to obstruct merchant ships, capture them, thus causing damage to Byzantium. This could not but affect the position of the urban elite, which began to lean towards an Alliance with Athens against Macedonia. When Philip II demanded that Byzantium participate in the war against Athens, he refused. At the same time to resume normal relations to Byzantium arrived Demosthenes (he is to fight against the Macedonian threat was called into the coalition of Rhodes, Chios, and Persia). In the year 340 BC the Macedonians besieged Pering, to help hastened the allied troops to the Byzantine Empire and the mercenaries of the Persian king Artaxerxes III. Then Philip II divided his army and his siege of Peripa, attacked the almost defenseless Byzantium. Thanks to the heroism of the garrison and the wisdom of the head of defense Leon Byzantine city was able to repel the unexpected assault and the ensuing siege. According to one legend, the defenders of Byzantium patronized Artemis, illuminating the wonderful light of the city and thus awakened the inhabitants during the night attack of the enemy (this is reflected even on the coins of Byzantium).

Persistent resistance made it possible for Byzantium to hold out until the arrival of reinforcements from Chios, Rhodes, KOs and Athens, which forced Philip to lift the naval siege of the city. However, he has strengthened the siege on the land side and with the help of a forged letter slandered with treason by Leon the Byzantine, who did not wait for the mob and hanged himself. The Macedonians pulled the most powerful siege weapons to the walls of Byzantium, built a bridge over the Golden horn to supply troops and ravaged all the surroundings of the city, but the allied fleet that dominated the Straits regularly delivered provisions and soldiers to Byzantium. The defenders of the city courageously repelled all the attacks of the enemy and in time eliminated the mines under the walls, and the army of Philip of Macedon began to get tired of the protracted siege. In the end, Philip II was forced to lift the siege and retreat, losing almost all of its fleet, defeated by the Athenians. But Byzantium suffered serious losses — thousands of residents were killed, many buildings were destroyed, the city walls and towers were significantly damaged. Having completed the reconstruction of the defensive ring and the damaged buildings, the inhabitants of Byzantium erected in the city a statue and a temple of Hecate the light-Bearing, which has since become the most revered goddess. According to the legend, she in the crucial night of defense of the Byzantine Empire, wanting to warn of danger, lit a torch, and defenders of the city were lifted up by barking dogs (this legend is interwoven with a similar legend about Artemis that was further reflected in the convergence of their cults, but the ancient historians give these legends as two different stories). In addition, according to Demosthenes, grateful Byzantines and perinthians put three huge marble sculptures in honor of their allies-the Athenians.

The victory of Byzantium increased its prestige in the eyes of its neighbors, strengthened the role of the city in the political life of the Greek States and further strengthened the independent position of Byzantium as a free trade policy. Byzantium retained independence even during the creation of the Corinthian (or Hellenic) Union, which United under the rule of the Macedonians most of Greece. However, Byzantium supported the conquests of Alexander the great, who never encroached on the independence of the city (Byzantine merchants were interested in good relations with the vast Empire and even provided their ships for the needs of Alexander). In the turbulent period of the collapse of the Empire of Alexander the great Byzantium due to its economic importance, military power and skillful diplomacy adhered to neutrality, while maintaining full independence. The city even refused to the ambassadors of the powerful diadochs of Lysimachus and Antigonus I of one eye, who tried to attach Byzantium to their powers or at least sign Alliance agreements with him (deeply wounded by the refusal of the Byzantines, Lysimachus still did not dare to take military action, and with Antigonus Byzantium even managed to maintain normal relations). In the era of Hellenism to the Union with Byzantium, which had a high authority in the Greek world, sought many influential rulers. In 319 BC. Byzantium helped arms friendly Kisiko, besieged by the Satrap of Phrygia Hellespontus will Irridium, which after threats from Antigone I was forced to retreat (in response Byzantium and offered the services of Antigone, while maintaining neutrality). In the III century BC Byzantium often acted as a mediator in disputes and wars between the Hellenistic powers.

In 278 BC, the area around Byzantium was badly damaged during the invasion of the Galatian tribes which raided the Balkans and Asia Minor (one of the units under the command Leonore and Lotaria ravaged the surrounding fields and destroyed a small fortress). The Byzantines managed to buy off the Galatians (a huge amount at that time was collected even in the allied cities), but this was only a temporary measure. After the Galatians conquered the neighboring Byzantine Thracian tribes, they created their own power, stretching from the banks of the Danube to the Bosphorus. Galatians constantly ravaged the neighbors of Byzantium, and the city itself for almost half a century was forced to pay an increasing tribute to the leaders of the Galatians (this tribute was not a regular tax, it was more like gifts that Byzantium tried to appease the Galatians, and ranged from 3 to 10 thousand gold). In the middle of the III century BC, the strengthening of Byzantine influence in the Western part of Pontus tried to prevent Galatis (Kallatis or Kallatia) and his ally Istria, but they were defeated by Byzantine troops, who ravaged the neighborhood of cities. In 260 BC. attempt to capture Byzantium has taken the armies of the Seleucids, but the siege failed. Residents of the city had a strong resistance to Antiochus II, came to the aid of troops of friendly cities of Propontis And Pontus (Hercules of Pontus alone sent 40 ships), and soon the Seleucid troops were forced to move away from the powerful walls of Byzantium. Significant military expenditures and burdensome tribute to the Galatians devastated the Treasury of Byzantium, forcing the city authorities to begin to charge a fee from merchant ships passing through the Bosphorus (it was not charged since the collapse of the Second Athenian Maritime Union). However, this measure has caused discontent on the part of other Greek cities interested in preserving the free navigation of the Straits.

On behalf of all dissatisfied with the innovation addressed to Byzantium ambassadors previously friendly Rhodes, but received a decisive refusal. In 220 BC a war broke out between Byzantium and Rhodes. On the side of the latter went to Bithynia, also interested in the freedom of navigation of the black sea Straits (Byzantine allies were the Pergamon king Attalus I Soter, Seleucid commander Achaeus and the aristocrat of Bithynia Tiboit). A large army of the king of Prus I captured all the possessions of Byzantium on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus (including the port of Hieron), and in Moesia, and a powerful fleet of Rhodes under the command of the navarch of Xenophon blocked the Hellespont, which affected the income of the Byzantines. After repeated refusal to abolish duties, the army of Bithynia, with the support of numerous Thracian mercenaries, began to besiege Byzantium, left without external support (in exchange for the release of his father from Egyptian captivity Ahei moved to the side of Rhodes, Tiboit died on the way from Macedonia to Byzantium, and the Greek city of Pontus neutrality expressed their disagreement with the fiscal policy of Byzantium). When Galata king Kawar, who feared losing its largest tributary (to 220 BC the tribute was increased to a huge amount of 80 talents), to mediate between the warring parties, Byzantium was forced to make concessions and to abandon the collection of duties from ships, receiving in return their Asian possessions. But soon the Byzantine Empire came the relief that the city ceased to pay tribute to the Galatians, broken, and destroyed the increase of the Thracians.

In the era of Hellenism on the coins of Byzantium, along with the Dolphin began to mint images of the gods, especially Demeter in a wreath of ears, Poseidon with a Trident, Apollo in a Laurel wreath, Athens Pallas in a Corinthian helmet, Dionysus with a vine, as well as a horn of plenty and top. During this period Byzantium for the convenience of international settlements coins were minted, similar to the king. The most common type of Byzantine coins in the Hellenistic era were silver and gold staters with the name of Lysimachus. Even though Byzantium refused to enter the state of Lysimachus, the city minted coins modeled on the coins of this monarch (thus, the Byzantine lysimachian staters became the most popular coin of the black sea region, especially in the Crimea and the Caucasus, and in the Bosporus Kingdom from the end of the III century BC and up to the era of Mithridates VIII, gold coins of Byzantine coinage formed the basis of gold circulation and were more known than the Bosporus staters). In addition to coinage of their own coins, Byzantium is widely used with the help of coinage coins of other States, putting them on alphabetic monograms, icons, images of dolphins, bunches of grapes or amphorae (these coinage found on the coins of Ptolemy I Soter and Lysimachus). In times of financial difficulties, the Byzantines were neccecarily and their money, for example, if you change the coin value to increase its value. In the second half of the III century BC the monetary Union of Byzantium and Chalcedon gave rise to joint copper coins, as evidenced by the inscriptions on them, consisting of the names of both cities (ΒΥΣΑΝ ΚΑΛΧΑ). Mesembria and Odessos, following the example of the Bosporus kings, minted coins of the same type as Byzantium.

The end of the IV and the whole III century BC was a period of economic prosperity of Byzantium, whose role in the Pontic trade in the Hellenistic era only increased. The area of his trade relations covered the entire Pont and the cities of the Aegean sea. In the first place in foreign trade, pushing Athens moved Rhodes (Rhodes friendly relations with Byzantium quickly recovered even after a short war broke out between the States in 220 BC). In addition, Byzantine merchants supplied grain to the largest grain market of the Hellenistic era — the island of Delos, as well as to Chios and Seleucia. However, the Pontic grain, which was the main article of re-export of Byzantium in the IV century BC, in the III century BC receded into the background, being pushed out of the Greek market by cheaper Egyptian bread. Gradually Byzantium became a major center of the slave trade, supplying slaves from Scythia, Bithynia and Thrace to the cities of Greece. Other important goods exported from the Greek cities of Pontus were cattle, salted and dried fish, honey and wax. From Greece through Byzantium went olive oil, wine, fabrics, ceramic and metal products. Trade relations between Byzantium and Thrace (but they were often interrupted due to military conflicts with the Thracian tribes), Egypt (this is indicated by the widespread circulation of Byzantine coins in the monetary circulation of Egypt, which had circulation on a par with Byzantine money, as well as the flourishing of the city of the cults of Serapis and ISIS) and the state of Seleucids. Various crafts (production of ships, weapons, shoes, fabrics, ceramic and metal products, food, leather, construction of buildings and temples), agriculture and animal husbandry continued to play a significant role in the economy of Byzantium (but the prosperity of agriculture in the vicinity of the city was hampered by frequent devastating raids of the Thracians).

The Hellenistic era was a period of prosperity in Byzantium of fine arts, architecture, literature, exact Sciences, sports and music. Especially famous for the construction art of the Byzantines, including its walls with seven towers and numerous temples (the walls of which were built of polished stone, the room was decorated with paintings, mosaics and sculptures). Byzantium maintained broad cultural ties with the powers of the ancient world; the Byzantine ambassadors, athletes, civardi and artists took part in the Panhellenic festivals (however, not a single gymnast from Byzantium did not become the winner of the competition). In the city regularly arranged Dionysius, which were accompanied by theatrical performances, and Bosporus, during which competitions were held on the run with torches. Among his contemporaries were the famous historian Demetrius of Byzantium (author of more than twenty books), poet miró and the poet Parmesan Byzantine (their works have not survived, these writers only mention historians).

The aggressive policy of the Macedonian king Philip V forced the Byzantines to break their neutrality and engage in the so-called Cretan war on the side of their long-time allies — Rhodes, Pergamon, Kizik and Athens. Philip captured Chalcedon and torn away from the Alliance with Byzantium, Pering, but in 202 BC, the allied fleet defeated the Macedonians at Chios. As a result, Rhodes turned to Rome for help, and Philip's refusal to stop the war led to the beginning of the Second Macedonian war. Thus, Byzantium, previously so ardently advocated for the prevention of the Romans in Greece, he became their allies (with the help of the troops of Rome, the Byzantines regained Perinth and achieved the liberation of Chalcedon).

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Various Roman legions almost simultaneously proclaimed Emperor three of his generals — the legate of Britain Claudia Albinus, legate of Pannonia of Septimius Severus and of the legate of Syria, Fescennia Niger. Septimus Severus quickly took Rome, made an Alliance with Claudius Albinus and went on a campaign against Niger, which by that time had subdued the Eastern part of the Empire. Usually cautious and far-sighted in policy matters, Byzantium at this time made a strategic mistake and put in Niger, helping them in the fight against the North. After the death of Niger in 194, Septimius Severus decided to punish all his supporters by imposing heavy indemnity on them. 196 year, the armies of the North laid siege to Byzantium, who refused to give up without resistance. The exhausting siege lasted for three years, bringing the population of the city to extreme exhaustion. In the end, hunger and lack of hope broke the resistance of the defenders of Byzantium, and the city surrendered to the mercy of the winner.

Septimus Severus ordered the execution of all surviving soldiers and magistrates, destroy all significant buildings and hide the powerful city walls, which for many centuries protected the Byzantines from enemies. In addition, he took Byzantium autonomy, subordinating it to Parinfo, and forced the residents to pay huge submit. Some time later, the North repented of his cruelty and began to restore the city (historians attribute merit in the restoration of Byzantium to his son — the future Emperor Caracalla). However, the consequences of the siege and further destruction were so catastrophic that the city could not recover from those tragic events for a long time. It has lost not only its former greatness, but also its exclusive role in Mediterranean trade, plunging for a century into the position of a vegetating Roman periphery. The decline of the Byzantine Empire is even more intensified after during another of the troubles in the reign of the Emperor Gallienus Roman troops once again devastated the city.

Everything changed under Emperor Constantine I the Great, who decided to create a new capital of the Roman Empire on the site of ancient Byzantium. According to one legend, Constantine first became acquainted with the surroundings of Byzantium, when he was camped next to him during the war with Licinius. Once tired of a long walk, Constantine lay down and fell asleep. In his dream he was of a noble but tired woman, she soon became a young and beautiful girl, which Constantine laid the signs of the Imperial power. Struck by a dream, Constantine interpreted it in his own way — in the image of a woman in front of him appeared Byzantium, which the Emperor must return the greatness and wealth. According to another story, during the siege of Byzantium, occupied by the troops of Licinius, Constantine appreciated the benefits of its unique location and came to the conclusion that this is where his new capital should be located. In addition, the decision of Constantine was influenced by the turbulent situation in Rome itself, since ancient times subject to turmoil and conspiracies. Whatever it was, in 324 the laying of a new city, which soon repeatedly surpassed the glory of its predecessor, took place. The construction of the magnificent Imperial Palace began, for the decoration of which the best works of art, thermal baths, libraries and a huge racetrack were brought from various places in Greece.