User:Beleriandcrises/sandbox

My sandbox is filled with stuff. You may wonder why don't I just keep it on my device instead of uploading here. Mainly is because I often use different machines and I like to use the templates for the references here. Please don't edit the page, use the talk instead.

= Hyperaccumulator =

An hyperaccumulator is an organism capable of absorbing very high concentration of an element in its tissues. They are usually plants of fungi and they have

Current article
A hyperaccumulator is a plant capable of growing in soils with very high concentrations of metals, absorbing these metals through their roots, and concentrating extremely high levels of metals in their tissues. The metals are concentrated at levels that are toxic to closely related species not adapted to growing on the metalliferous soils. Compared to non-hyperaccumulating species, hyperaccumulator roots extract the metal from the soil at a higher rate, transfer it more quickly to their shoots, and store large amounts in leaves and roots. The ability to hyperaccumulate toxic metals compared to related species has been shown to be due to differential gene expression and regulation of the same genes in both plants. Over 500 species of flowering plants have been identified as having the ability to hyperaccumulate metals in their tissues.

Hyperaccumulating plants hold interest for their ability to extract metals from the soils of contaminated sites (phytoremediation) to return the ecosystem to a less toxic state. The plants also hold potential to be used to mine metals from soils with very high concentrations (phytomining) by growing the plants then harvesting them for the metals in their tissues.

The genetic advantage of hyperaccumulation of metals may be that the toxic levels of heavy metals in leaves deter herbivores or increase the toxicity of other anti-herbivory metabolites.

Genetic basis
Several gene families are involved in the processes of hyperaccumulation including upregulation of absorption and sequestration of heavy metal metals. These hyperaccumulation genes (HA genes) are found in over 450 plant species, including the model organisms Arabidopsis and Brassicaceae. The expression of such genes is used to determine whether a species is capable of hyperaccumulation. Expression of HA genes provides the plant with capacity to uptake and sequester metals such as As, Co, Fe, Cu, Cd, Pb, Hg, Se, Mn, Zn, Mo and Ni in 100–1000x the concentration found in sister species or populations.

The capacity for hyperaccumulation is dependent on two major factors: environmental exposure and expression of members of the ZIP gene family. Although experiments have shown that the hyperaccumulation is partially dependent on environmental exposure (i.e. only plants exposed to a metal are observed with high concentrations of that metal), hyperaccumulation is ultimately dependent on the presence and upregulation of genes involved with that process. It has been shown that hyperaccumulation capacities can be inherited in Thlaspi caerulescens (Brassicaceae) and others. As there is wide variety among hyperaccumulating species that span across different plant families, it is likely that HA genes were ecotypically selected for. In most hyperaccumulating plants, the main mechanism for metal transport are the proteins coded by genes in the ZIP family, however other families such as the HMA, MATE, YSL and MTP families have also been observed to be involved. The ZIP gene family is a novel, plant-specific gene family that encodes Cd, Mn, Fe and Zn transporters. The ZIP family plays a role in supplying Zn to metalloproteins.

In one study on Arabidopsis, it was found that the metallophyte A. halleri expressed a member of the ZIP family that was not expressed in a non-metallophytic sister species. This gene was an iron regulated transporter (IRT-protein) that encoded several primary transporters involved with cellular uptake of cations above the concentration gradient. When this gene was transformed into yeast, hyperaccumulation was observed. This suggests that overexpression of ZIP family genes that encode cation transporters is a characteristic genetic feature of hyperaccumulation. Another gene family that has been observed ubiquitously in hyperaccumulators are the ZTP and ZNT families. A study on T. caerulescens identified the ZTP family as a plant specific family with high sequence similarity to other zinc transporter4. Both the ZTP and ZNT families, like the ZIP family, are zinc transporters. It has been observed in hyperaccumulating species, that these genes, specifically ZNT1 and ZNT2 alleles are chronically overexpressed.

While the exact mechanism by which these genes facilitate hyperaccumulation is, as of yet, uncharacterized, expression patterns correlate heavily with individual hyperaccumulation capacity and metal exposure, suggests these gene families play a regulatory role. As the presence and expression zinc transporter gene families is highly prevalent in hyperaccumulators, it is likely that the capacity to accumulate a wide range of heavy metals is likely due to an inability of the zinc transporters to discriminate against certain metal ion. The response of the plants to hyperaccumulation of any metal also supports this theory as it has been observed that AhHMHA3 is expressed in hyperaccumulating individuals. AhHMHA3 has been identified to be expressed in response and aid of Zn detoxification. In another study, using metallophytic and non-metallophytic Arabidopsis populations, back crosses indicated pleiotropy between Cd and Zn tolerances. This response suggests that plants are unable to detect specific metals, and that hyperaccumulation is likely a result of an overexpressed Zn transportation system.

The overall effect of these expression patterns has been hypothesized to assist in plant defense systems. In one hypothesis, "the elemental defense hypothesis", provided by Poschenrieder, it is suggested that the expression of these genes assist in antiherbivory or pathogen defenses by making tissues toxic to organisms attempting to feed on that plant. Another hypothesis, "the joint hypothesis", provided by Boyd, suggests that expression of these genes assists in systemic defense.

With phytoremediation

 * 1) It has been concluded that three-component phytoremediation systems based on synergistic interactions between plant roots, AMF and hydrocarbon-degrading microorganisms demonstrated high effectiveness in dissipation of organic pollutants in soil. : https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27487095
 * 2) Lead, AMF and robinia pseudoacacia - There are many ways to overcome the limitations of phytoremediation with hyperaccumulators. One of them is the use of other plant species with lower capacity of HM accumulation but fast-growth rate and high biomass. The high biomass of plants can compensate for the relatively low capacity for HM accumulation. Another strategy to increase the efficiency of phytoremediation is to inoculate phytoremediation plants with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF)3.: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4740888/
 * 3) AMF, lead and vetiver grass - With mycorrhizal inoculation and increasing Pb levels, Pb uptake of shoot and root increased compared to those of NM control. Root colonization increased with mycorrhizal inoculation but decreased as Pb levels increased : https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26709443
 * 4) not much, just saying its good - Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are considered the most important type of mycorrhizae for phytoremediation. AMF have broad occurrence in contaminated soils, and evidences suggest they improve plant tolerance to excess of certain trace elements : https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26250548
 * 5)  mycorrhizal plants had a greater accumulation of these metals, so that those under 80 mg/kg Cd soil(-1) accumulated 833.3 and 1585.8 mg Cd in their shoots and roots, respectively. In conclusion, mycorrhizal fungi can improve not only growth and yield of pot marigold in heavy metal stressed condition, but also phytoremediation performance by increasing heavy metals accumulation in the plant organs. : https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26237494
 * 6) Redundancy analysis (RDA) showed that the efficiency of phytoremediation was enhanced by AM symbioses, and soil pH, Pb, Zn, and Cd levels were the main factors influencing the HM accumulation characteristics of plants. : https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25929455
 * 7) Effect of plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPR) and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculation on oats in saline-alkali soil contaminated by petroleum to enhance phytoremediation. : https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25091168
 * 8) All the above results show that their ecological effects are significantly improved. AM would promote rhizosphere soil that will help the sustainability of ecological systems in mining area. It is really of great significance to keep the ecological system stability. : https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24455959
 * 9) Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on growth, nutrient status, and total antioxidant activity of Melilotus albus during phytoremediation of a diesel-contaminated substrate. : https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21420227
 * 10)  Highly significant positive correlations were shown between of arbuscular formation in root segments (A)) and plant water content, root lipids, peroxidase, catalase polyphenol oxidase and total microbial count in soil rhizosphere as well as PAH dissipation in spiked soil. As consequence of the treatment with Am, the plants provide a greater sink for the contaminants since they are better able to survive and grow.: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24049473

= categories to add=
 * fire-resistant
 * salt resistance
 * shade-tolerant

= Dynamic accumulator =

Add ref for the definition and for the example, add a quote for all the refs, add a comfrey picture

= Solarpunk =

I'd like to see the page on wikipedia, so I'll gather references until it gets to a decent amount (and I'll maybe find some strong ones)


 * Stories and novels : http://www.solarpunkpress.com/
 * Stories from Solarpunk and Eco-Speculation: https://sunvaultantho.wordpress.com
 * quite empty right now, but maybe useful for more resources in the future: http://solarpunk.wikia.com
 * a load of links: https://medium.com/solarpunks/solarpunk-a-reference-guide-8bcf18871965
 * http://eco-fiction.com/contest/what-is-solarpunk/

= Urtica dioica =

Medicinal uses
U. dioica has been studied to treat a wide array of pathologies, with positive results in many cases. The aerial parts of the plants have shown an anti-inflammatory , antibiotic  , and analgesic , even though further studies are needed to confirm some of the mechanisms and properties. The roots extract has been studied for its effects on the benign prostatic hyperplasia    and Prostate cancer, with good results. In general it has effects on the testosteron levels, probably by reducing the binding activity of the sex hormone-binding globulin.

U. dioica has also shown good results against hyperglicemia and in diabetes mellitus type 2

Some of the U. dioica medicinal properties were also known in traditional medicine. In the traditional Austrian medicine it is used internally (as tea or fresh leaves) to treat disorders of the kidneys and urinary tract, gastrointestinal tract, locomotor system, skin, cardiovascular system, hemorrhage, influenza, rheumatism, and gout. . Some of the traditional uses, such as the hemostatic and wound-healing potential of the leaves have been proved

As Old English stiðe, nettle is one of the nine plants invoked in the pagan Anglo-Saxon Nine Herbs Charm, recorded in the 10th century. Nettle was believed to be a galactagogue, a substance that promotes lactation.

Urtication, or flogging with nettles, is the process of deliberately applying stinging nettles to the skin in order to provoke inflammation. An agent thus used is known as a rubefacient (something that causes redness). This is done as a folk remedy for treatment of rheumatism.