User:Benbram/sandbox

Armayor, O. Kimball. "Did Herodotus Ever Go to Egypt." Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt15 (1978): 59-73. doi:10.2307/40000131.

Baer, Gabriel. "Slavery in Nineteenth Century Egypt." The Journal of African History8, no. 3 (1967): 417-41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/179829.

DuBOIS, SHIRLEY GRAHAM. "EGYPT IS AFRICA (1 OF 2 PARTS)." The Black Scholar1, no. 7 (1970): 20-27. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41163457.

"Egypt." UNHCR. August 2018. Accessed October 18, 2018. http://reporting.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/UNHCREgypt Fact Sheet - August 2018.pdf.

Leben Nelson Moro, "Interethnic Relations in Exile: The Politics of Ethnicity among Sudanese Refugees in Uganda and Egypt," Journal of Refugee Studies 17, no. 4 (2004): 420-436.

Rivlin, Helen Anne B. "Muḥammad ʿAlī." Encyclopædia Britannica. July 29, 2018. Accessed October 17, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammad-Ali-pasha-and-viceroy-of-Egypt.

Siame, Chisanga N. "Katunkumene and Ancient Egypt in Africa." Journal of Black Studies44, no. 3 (2013): 252-72. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23414670.

Snowden, Frank M. "Misconceptions about African Blacks in the Ancient Mediterranean World: Specialists and Afrocentrists." Arion: A Journal of Humanities and the Classics4, no. 3 (1997): 28-50. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20163634.

Walz, Terence, and Cuno, Kenneth M., eds. Race and Slavery in the Middle East : Histories of Trans-Saharan Africans in 19th-Century Egypt, Sudan, and the Ottoman Mediterranean. New York: American University in Cairo Press, 2011. Accessed October 4, 2018. ProQuest Ebook Central.

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Notes:

Race and Slavery in the Middle East : Histories of Trans-Saharan Africans in 19th-Century Egypt, Sudan, and the Ottoman Mediterranean:

-Egypt used military slaves since the 9th century and from the time of these first armies, the militant slaves have been mostly black individuals.

-In the 9th century, Ahmad Ibn Tulun recruited 40,000 Sudanese slaves.

-The next two centuries saw tens of thousands of black Sudanese slaves recruited to the Egyptian military.

-By the mid-12th century, Egypt began transitioning to the usage of white slaves.

-Didn’t begin using black slaves again until Muhammed Ali in the 19th century. Black slaves were soldiers and white slaves were officers. This was the style of the army until the end of the century.

-Ali formed a European style army built entirely of slaves. Nizamarmy.

Sudanese slaves as soldiers:

-It is said that thousands of the slave soldiers died while in training due to various reasons, but this is not true. Other Sudanese died elsewhere in the country but they were not in fact soldiers in training.

-First time they were used was to silence a revolt in the the village of Banja in Upper Egypt.

Katunkumene and Ancient Egypt in Africa:

-Egyptologists reject the notion that black Africans founded Egypt.

-Only black scholars have ever really believed this.

-Much of the early Egyptian language and hieroglyphs reflect language from black African cultures. Possible the initial rulers of Egypt were black

-The descendants of these potential African settlers have ended up in countries around all of Africa.

Blacks in the Ancient Mediterranean World: Specialists and Afrocentrists:

-Egyptian art typically depicted Egyptian men as “reddish-brown,” women as yellow and people from the south as black.

-Ancient Egyptians varied in color: Northern Egyptians were light and Mediterranean looking, central Egyptians were light brown and southern Egyptians were darker brown.

-Intermarriage between darker skinned Africans (non-Egyptians) and lighter skinned Egyptians was common practice in ancient Egypt which resulted in mixed-race children.

-Yet, Egyptian art and sculptures show that the typical Egyptian was not a negroid (define this)

-There is a myth that Cleopatra, who was of Macedonian descent, was black. There is no evidence to back this. Based on art and sculptures she does not to appear to have been a negroid.

-There is too much focus on Egypt as a black culture when it simply was not, other civilizations are ignored, such as Nubia.

Slavery in Nineteenth Century Egypt:

- Majority of Egyptian slaves were black African men and women from all over the continent

- Mainly worked in domestic service

- Until the British occupation, Egypt used black slaves as soldiers

- Muhammad Ali had about 2500 black slave soldiers (1830s)

- Said and Ismail, the next two rulers, continued using slaves as troops in the later part of the century despite the slave trade being outlawed

- Muhammad Ali: required outer regions to pay taxes in slaves

- Also agricultural slave labor

- Upper Egypt kept agricultural slaves in the sugar plantations

- Lower Egypt agricultural slavery was the “temporary result of the sudden prosperity in the 1860s which lead to the acquisition of new land and to” agricultural expansion.

- Having slaves was a sign of respectability

- Black slaves were owned by “almost all layers of Egyptian society.” People with all types of jobs and social status

- Christians, Jews and Europeans in Egypt all had slaves

- Multiple sources put together give historians the belief that in 18-38-1840 there for between 22,000 and 30,000 slaves in Egypt: 4,500-5,000 black males and 12,000-20,000 black females

- About half of all slaves lived in Cairo

- This number stayed about the same throughout the entirety of the 19th century

- These estimates may be rather low

- The Jallaba, who were the main source for the Egyptian slave trade, were black Sudanese

- They continued until slave-trade was abolished at the end of the century

Decline of slavery:

- Muhammad Ali: Privately wanted to abolish slavery but couldn’t because of the “prejudices” of the upper class Egyptians and the fact that slavery is in accordance with Islamic law

- December 1854, Said takes first measures of banning save trade as he prohibited the importation of Sudanese slaves into Egypt

- Said sent multiple orders to ban the slave trade in different parts of Egypt, but none were enforced and the black slave trade went on as it did before his rule.

- In the 1870s, Ismail sent European led expeditions to Sudan and the Red Sea area to try to cut off the slave trade at the source (they had less interest in local issues and could not be easily as corrupted)

- Failed, slavery continued throughout the 1870s

- August 4, 1877, Convention between the British and Egyptians Governments for the Suppression of the Slave-Trade was signed

- Punished slave dealers and made owners free their slaves

- By 1889, 18,000 slaves had been freed

- November 21, 1895, a new Convention of the same name was signed. Did the same thing just had more in-depth detail and harsher punishments

- Many Muslims thought the abolition of slavery was an infringement on Koranic law

- Growth of the free labor market in the 1880s and 1890s, as well as the urbanization of the country, made having slaves more expensive and less appealing than just hiring a server or worker

- Similar thing in the agricultural world, population growth meant the need for more jobs

- Increased interactions with Europe also changed Egyptian culture and they shifted away from the idea of slavery.

- By the twentieth century, Egypt had no more slavery

Interethnic Relations in Exile: The Politics of Ethnicity among Sudanese Refugees in Uganda and Egypt:

Sudanese Refugees in Cairo

- Sudanese refugees belong to many different ethnic groups which greatly affect the politics of whatever place they migrate to

- The Sudanese conflict, which has forced over a million people to leave Sudan, has had to phases of migration: one from 1955 to 1972, and one from 1983 until the mid 2000s.

-The majority of these refugees have either gone to Uganda or Cairo.

- Sudanese refugees who go to Cairo have passports and come legally, but engage in illegal work.

- The Dinka and the Neur are the two largest Sudanese ethnic groups

Refugees in Egypt:

- South Sudanese have it worse because their culture and traditions are much different

- Egypt has given the rights to declare refugee status to the UNHCR

- The UNHCR, though, has been very ineffective in determining refugee status, as by 2001, only 2833 Sudanese had been registered as refugees in Egypt while tens of thousands were either yet to be interviewed or denied.

- The 15,000 Sudanese denied refugee status from 1997-2000 faced great pressure from the Egyptian government through harassment, arrests and deportation.

- In fact, the Egyptian government has at times collected blacks living in Egypt who they presume to be illegal even when some of them have been under the supervision of the UNHCR.

- There was also an increase in racially motivated harassment and attacks towards blacks by locals.

- While the Sudanese are the main victims, other black Africans living in Egypt are victims as well.

- Arab Sudanese do not fat the same issues as the black African Sudanese but do still face discrimination.

-Sudan = Arab

- South Sudan = African/black

- History of slavery and racism in Egypt is a probably cause for their attitudes towards African Sudanese.

-19th century Egypt: black slaves, mainly Sudanese, were owned by all types of Egyptians no matter the class or region

- 2001: 18,000 Sudanese refugees in Egypt

- Majority of whom live in Cairo

- Since they have settled into the local population, they are not necessarily considered refugees by the government the same way the Sudanese refugees in Uganda are as they live in specific refugee camps

- Sudanese refugees in Egypt have little support from NGOs or anyone outside of themselves

Egypt is Africa (part 1 of 2):

-Egypt originally entailed the entire Nile River valley, so more Central Africans, who had darker skin, were considered Egyptian

-Egypt is dissociated from blackness because Western people view it as a biblical land. They do not want to see its image hurt by being associated with Africa.

-"Arab Africa" vs. "Black Africa"

Did Herodotus Ever Go to Egypt (Armayor):

Herodotus on blacks:

- Herodotus describes the Egyptians as "black-skinned and wooly-haired" and said that they were circumcised.

- Greeks referred to Egyptians as "black"

- Categorizes them with Ethiopians

-"How black did not really matter"

- "The combination of black skin and wooly hair makes them black"

- It is possible the blacks who appear in Greek art around this time period were meant to be Egyptian

-Herodotus assumed the black people he interested with were Egyptian because they were circumcised and in the Egyptian region. It is extremely likely he was wrong in his belief and that they were not in fact Egyptian. No where in Egyptian literature or art does anything suggest that fifth century BC Egyptians were black.

-Herodotus racist?

Herodotus on Priests:

-Egypt had a reputation of being xenophobic.

-Herodotus says "no Egyptian, man or woman, will kiss a Greek or use the knife or spits or cauldron of a Greek, or taste the flesh even of a clean bull that has been cut with a Greek knife."

-the Bible says Egypt would not eat with the Jews

-The Greeks were known as the most hated people in fifth BC century Egypt

Conclusion

-Herodotus makes vast generalizations about Egypt that were most likely not true.

-He drew on previous Greek understandings of Egypt when discussing Egypt.

-Claims that they were a backwards people. (because they were "black")

-In reality, they were not backwards compare to the Greeks, nor were they "black".

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Article Evaluation on Politics in Education

There is a missing comma after the phrase "academic discipline" and there needs to be another citation at the end of the first paragraph for the definition of "political science" and "organizational theory."

The key concepts were simply placed in the article, with no introduction or lead into any of them. It was very scattered and I lost focus of the main point of the article. Additionally, the article touches on some very interesting subjects but does not go into enough in-depth discussion on these topics. With more sources, more ideas can be incorporated and the definitions can be expanded. I did not come away from the article with a true understanding for the topic at hand and I think that the article should do more to frame itself as a discussion on Politics in Education and not just explain some of its subsections.

I think the biggest issue, however, is that the article never truly explains what "politics in education" is. I was left with little understanding as to the point of the article. I think it needs to be made much clearer that this article is about the teaching of politics in education institutions. I would maybe add different examples of politics being taught in educational institutions and add a more in-depth analysis of micro- and macro- politics, as that is at the core of politics in education. Furthermore, it could also be discussed how politics are taught differently in educational institutions, not only throughout America, but throughout the world.