User:Berbuah salak/sandbox/written in Indonesian

As the title suggests, this page is for testing or preparing articles and other things in Indonesian.

In Indonesian: Seperti judulnya, halaman ini untuk menguji coba atau menyiapkan artikel dan lain-lain dalam bahasa Indonesia.

=Tata bahasa Melayu (Malay grammar)=

Tata bahasa Melayu ialah badan aturan yang menjelaskan bagaimana bahasa Melayu digunakan. Artikel ini khususnya membahas tata bahasa Melayu baku, termasuk ragam baku yang ada di Malaysia, Brunei, Singapura, serta ragam baku yang ada di Indonesia dalam nama "bahasa Indonesia".

Pembentukan kata
Bahasa Melayu ialah bahasa aglutinatif, sehingga kata baru dapat dibentuk dengan pengimbuhan. Selain itu, kata baru juga dapat dibentuk dengan perulangan penuh atau sebagian, dan penggabungan, yaitu menggabungkan beberapa kata (biasanya dua) menjadi satu kata. Meski ia merupakan bahasa aglutinatif, morfologi bahasa Melayu dapat dikatakan cukup sederhana karena ia memiliki fitur morfologi turunan (pembentukan kata baru) yang cukup ekstensif, tapi fitur infleksinya (membentuk fitur suatu kata tanpa mengubah artinya) yang sangat minimum. Oleh karena itu, bahasa Melayu dikelompokkan sebagai bahasa terisolat berdasarkan pada Morfologinya, seperti halnya kebanyakan bahasa yang ada di Asia Tenggara Daratan.

Imbuhan
Bermacam ragam imbuhan (awalan; akhiran; apitan; sisipan) dapat digunakan pada suatu kata untuk membentuk kata baru atau jenis infleksinya, misalnya untuk pembentukan kata baru "besar", "perbesar" (membuat lebih besar), "besar-besarkan" (melebih-lebihkan; membuat suatu hal seperti masalah yang besar), "pembesar" (orang atau alat yang memperbesar; orang yang berpangkat atau berkuasa). Sedangkan, untuk pembentukan jenis infleksi, misalnya "pandang", "mêmandang" (aktif), "dipandang" (pasif). Dua awalan bahasa Melayu, yaitu "mêng-" dan "pêng-" dapat memengaruhi bunyi awal kata jika mengawali beberapa kata tertentu.

Berikut ini ialah contoh penggunaan imbuhan yang ekstensif pada kata "masuk":
 * masuk
 * masukan  = sesuatu atau hasil yang dimasukkan; saran
 *  masuki  = masuk ke
 *  memasuki  = (aktif)
 *  dimasuki  = (pasif)
 *  masukkan  = membuat memasuki
 *  memasukkan  = (aktif)
 *  dimasukkan  = (pasif)
 *  kemasukan  = tak sengaja dimasuki; dimasuki oleh roh
 *  pemasukan  = tindakan memasukkan; pendapatan

Berdasarkan pada letaknya, imbuhan bahasa Melayu dapat dibagi menjadi awalan (ditaruh di depan kata), akhiran (ditaruh di akhir kata), apitan (dua imbuhan yang terdiri atas awalan dan akhiran, yang diapit depan belakang pada kata) dan sisipan (ditaruh di tengah kata).

Kata benda imbuhan ialah imbuhan untuk membentuk kata benda maupun kata benda baru (jika imbuhan ditambahkan pada kata benda). Berikut ini ialah imbuhan kata benda:

The prefix pêr- drops its r before r, l and frequently before p, t, k. In some words it is peng-; though formally distinct in both phonologically and functionally, these are treated as variants of the same prefix in Malay grammar books.

Similarly, verb affixes are attached to root words to form verbs. In Malay, there are:

Adjective affixes are attached to root words to form adjectives:

In addition to these affixes, Malay also has a lot of borrowed affixes from other languages such as Sanskrit, Arabic and English. For example, maha-, pasca-, eka-, bi-, anti-, pro- etc.

Reduplication
Reduplication (kata ganda or kata ulang) in the Malay language is a very productive process. It is mainly used for forming plurals, but sometimes it may alter the meaning of the whole word, or change the usage of the word in sentences.

Forms
There are four types of words reduplication in Malay, namely
 * Full reduplication (kata ganda penuh (Malaysian) or kata ulang utuh (Indonesian) or dwilingga)
 * Partial reduplication (kata ganda separa (Malaysian) or kata ulang sebagian (Indonesian) or dwipurwa)
 * Rhythmic reduplication (kata ganda berentak (Malaysian) or kata ulang salin suara (Indonesian))
 * Reduplication of meaning

Full reduplication is the complete duplication of the word, separated by a dash (-). For example, buku (book) when duplicated form buku-buku (books), while the duplicated form of batu (stone) is batu-batu (stones).

Partial reduplication repeats only the initial consonant of the word, such as dêdaunan (leaves) from the word daun (leaf), and têtangga (neighbor) from the word tangga (ladder). The words are usually not separated by spaces or punctuation, and each is considered a single word.

Rhythmic reduplication repeats the whole word, but one or more of its phonemes are altered. For example, the word gêrak (motion) can be reduplicated rhythmically to form gêrak-gêrik (movements) by altering the vowel. The reduplication can also be formed by altering the consonant, e.g., in sayur-mayur (vegetables [bundled for the market]) from the root word sayur (vegetable/vegetables [what is found on plate]).

Nouns
Common derivational affixes for nouns are pêng-/pêr-/juru- (actor, instrument, or someone characterized by the root), -an (collectivity, similarity, object, place, instrument), kê-...-an (abstractions and qualities, collectivities), pêr-/pêng-...-an (abstraction, place, goal or result).

Gender
Malay does not make use of grammatical gender. There are only a few words that use natural gender; the same word used for he and she is also used for his and her. Most of the words that refer to people (family terms, professions, etc.) have a form that does not distinguish between the sexes. For example, adik can refer to a younger sibling of either sex. To specify the natural gender of a noun, an adjective must be added: adik lêlaki/adik laki-laki corresponds to "brother" but really means "male younger sibling". There are some words that are gendered. For instance, putêri means "princess" and putêra means "prince"; words like these are usually borrowed from other languages (in this case, Sanskrit).

Number
There is no grammatical plural in Malay. Thus orang may mean either "person" or "people". Plurality is expressed by the context, or the usage of words such as numerals, bêbêrapa "some", or sêmua "all" that express plurality. In many cases, it simply isn't relevant to the speaker. Because of this, both Malay and Indonesian effectively has general number, similar to many languages of East Asia and Southeast Asia.

Reduplication is commonly used to emphasize plurality. However, reduplication has many other functions. For example, orang-orang means "(all the) people", but orang-orangan means "scarecrow". Similarly, while hati means "heart" or "liver", hati-hati is a verb meaning "to be careful". Also, not all reduplicated words are inherently plural, such as orang-orangan "scarecrow/scarecrows", biri-biri "a/some sheep" and kupu-kupu "butterfly/butterflies", these are all words in their own rights and have nothing to do with plurality, as is the case with some animal names such as "kura-kura" for tortoise and "laba(h)-laba(h)" for spider. Some reduplication is rhyming rather than exact, as in sayur-mayur "(all sorts of) vegetables".

Distributive affixes derive mass nouns that are effectively plural: pohon "tree", pêpohonan "flora, trees"; rumah "house", pêrumahan "housing, houses"; gunung "mountain", pê(r)gunungan "mountain range, mountains".

Quantity words come before the noun: sêribu orang "a thousand people", bêbêrapa pê(r)gunungan "a series of mountain ranges", bêbêrapa kupu-kupu "some butterflies".

Pronouns
Personal pronouns are not a separate part of speech, but a subset of nouns. They are frequently omitted, and there are numerous ways to say "you". Commonly the person's name, title, title with name, or occupation is used ("does Johnny want to go?", "would Madam like to go?"); kin terms, including fictive kinship, are extremely common. However, there are also dedicated personal pronouns, as well as the demonstrative pronouns ini "this, the" and itu "that, the".

Personal pronouns
From the perspective of a European language, Malay boasts a wide range of different pronouns, especially to refer to the addressee (the so-called second person pronouns). These are used to differentiate several parameters of the person they are referred to, such as the social rank and the relationship between the addressee and the speaker.

This table shows an overview over the most commonly and widely used pronouns of the Malay language:

First person pronouns
Notable among the personal-pronoun system is a distinction between two forms of "we": kita (you and me, you and us) and kami (us, but not you). The distinction is increasingly confused in colloquial Indonesian, but not in Malay.

Saya and aku are the two major forms of "I"; saya (or its literary / archaic form sahaya) is the more formal form, whereas aku is used with close acquaintances like family and friends, and between lovers. Sa(ha)ya may also be used for "we", but in such cases it is usually used with sêkalian or sêmua "all"; this form is ambiguous as to whether it corresponds with exclusive kami or inclusive kita. Less common are hamba "slave", hamba tuan, hamba datok (all extremely humble), beta (a royal addressing oneselves), patik (a commoner addressing a royal), kami (royal or editorial "we"), kita, têman, and kawan (lit. "friend").

Second person pronouns
There are three common forms of "you", anda (polite), kamu (familiar), and kalian "y'all" (commonly used as a plural form of you, slightly informal). Anda is used in formal contexts like in advertisements and business or to show respect (though terms like tuan "sir" and other titles also work the same way), while kamu is used in informal situations. Anda sêkalian or Anda semua are polite plural. Engkau orang —contracted to kau orang or korang—is used to address subjects plural in the most informal context.

Êngkau (commonly shortened to kau) and hang (dialectical) are used to social inferiors or equals, awak to equals, and êncik (contracted to cik before a name) is polite, traditionally used for people without title. The compounds makcik and pakcik are used with village elders one is well acquainted with or the guest of.

Tuanku (from tuan aku, "my lord") is used by commoners to address royal members.

Third person pronouns
The common word for "s/he" is ia, which has the object and emphatic/focused form dia; consequently ia has been recently used to refer to animals. Bêliau ("his/her Honour") is respectful. As with the English "you", names and kin terms are extremely common. Colloquially, dia orang (or its contracted form diorang) is commonly used for the plural "they" whereas mereka "they", mereka itu, or orang itu "those people" are used in writing.

Baginda – corresponding to "his/her Majesty/Highness" – is used for addressing royal figures and religious prophets, especially in Islamic literature.

Regional varieties
There are a large number of other words for "I" and "you", many regional, dialectical, or borrowed from local languages. Saudara (masc., "you") or saudari (fem., pl. saudara-saudara / saudari-saudari / saudara-saudari) show utmost respect. Daku ("I") and dikau ("you") are poetic or romantic. Indonesian gua ("I") and lu "you" (both from Hokkien) are slang and extremely informal. In the dialect of the northern states of Malaysia – Kedah, Penang, Perlis and Perak (northern) typically hang is used as "you" (singular), while hampa or hangpa are used for the plural "you". In the state of Pahang, two variants for "I" and "you" exist, depending on location: in East Pahang, around Pekan, kome is used as "I" while in the west around Temerloh, koi, keh or kah is used. Kome is also used in Kuala Kangsar, Perak, but instead it means "you". This allegedly originated from the fact that both the royal families of Pahang and Perak (whose seats are in Pekan and Kuala Kangsar respectively) were descendants of the same ancient line.

The informal pronouns aku, kamu, engkau, ia, kami, and kita are indigenous to Malay.

Possessive pronouns
Aku, kamu, êngkau, and ia have short possessive enclitic forms. All others retain their full forms like other nouns, as does emphatic dia: meja saya, meja kita, meja anda, meja dia "my table, our table, your table, his/her table".

There are also proclitic forms of aku and êngkau, ku- and kau-. These are used when there is no emphasis on the pronoun:


 * Ku-dengar raja itu punya pênyakit sopak. Aku tahu ilmu tabib. Aku-lah mêngobati dia.
 * "It has come to my attention that the king has a skin disease. I am skilled in medicine. I will cure him."

Here ku-verb is used for a general report, aku verb is used for a factual statement, and emphatic aku-lah mêng-verb (≈ "I am the one who...") for focus on the pronoun.

Demonstrative pronouns
There are two demonstrative pronouns in Malay. Ini "this, these" is used for a noun generally near to the speaker. Itu "that, those" is used for a noun generally far from the speaker. Either may sometimes be equivalent to English "the". There is no difference between singular and plural. However, plural can be indicated through duplication of a noun followed by a ini or itu. The word yang "which" is often placed before demonstrativ