User:Billybee132/Herbicide resistance

Herbicides, also commonly known as weedkillers, are substances used to control undesired plants, also known as weeds. Selective herbicides control specific weed species, while leaving the desired crop relatively unharmed, while non-selective herbicides (sometimes called total weedkillers in commercial products) can be used to clear waste ground, industrial and construction sites, railways and railway embankments as they kill all plant material with which they come into contact. Apart from selective/non-selective, other important distinctions include persistence (also known as residual action: how long the product stays in place and remains active), means of uptake (whether it is absorbed by above-ground foliage only, through the roots, or by other means), and mechanism of action (how it works). Historically, products such as common salt and other metal salts were used as herbicides, however these have gradually fallen out of favor and in some countries a number of these are banned due to their persistence in soil, and toxicity and groundwater contamination concerns. Herbicides have also been used in warfare and conflict.

Modern herbicides are often synthetic mimics of natural plant hormones which interfere with growth of the target plants. The term organic herbicide has come to mean herbicides intended for organic farming. Some plants also produce their own natural herbicides, such as the genus Juglans (walnuts), or the tree of heaven; such action of natural herbicides, and other related chemical interactions, is called allelopathy. Due to herbicide resistance – a major concern in agriculture – a number of products combine herbicides with different means of action. Integrated pest management may use herbicides alongside other pest control methods.

In the United States in 2012, about 91% of all herbicide usage, determined by weight applied, was in agriculture. In 2012, world pesticide expenditures totaled nearly $24.7 billion; herbicides were about 44% of those sales and constituted the biggest portion, followed by insecticides, fungicides, and fumigants. Herbicide is also used in forestry, where certain formulations have been found to suppress hardwood varieties in favor of conifers after clearcutting, as well as pasture systems, and management of areas set aside as wildlife habitat.

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Herbicides have also had an impact on urban environments. The use of herbicides has contributed to the growth of city populations by allowing for greater yields with less farmland and farmers. The management of noxious weeds in the urban environments has also been impacted. There are many cities that are moving away from synthetic herbicides and transitioning to the use of organic compounds. ======

List of mechanisms found in modern herbicides

 * ACCase inhibitors: Acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase (ACCase) is part of the first step of lipid synthesis. Thus, ACCase inhibitors affect cell membrane production in the meristems of the grass plant. The ACCases of grasses are sensitive to these herbicides, whereas the ACCases of dicot plants are not.
 * ALS inhibitors: Acetolactate synthase (ALS; also known as acetohydroxyacid synthase, or AHAS) is part of the first step in the synthesis of the branched-chain amino acids (valine, leucine, and isoleucine). These herbicides slowly starve affected plants of these amino acids, which eventually leads to inhibition of DNA synthesis. They affect grasses and dicots alike. The ALS inhibitor family includes various sulfonylureas (SUs) (such as flazasulfuron and metsulfuron-methyl), imidazolinones (IMIs), triazolopyrimidines (TPs), pyrimidinyl oxybenzoates (POBs), and sulfonylamino carbonyl triazolinones (SCTs). The ALS biological pathway exists only in plants and not animals, thus making the ALS-inhibitors among the safest herbicides.
 * EPSPS inhibitors: Enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase enzyme (EPSPS) is used in the synthesis of the amino acids tryptophan, phenylalanine and tyrosine. They affect grasses and dicots alike. Glyphosate (Roundup) is a systemic EPSPS inhibitor inactivated by soil contact.
 * Auxin-like herbicides: The discovery of synthetic auxins inaugurated the era of organic herbicides. They were discovered in the 1940s after a long study of the plant growth regulator auxin. Synthetic auxins mimic this plant hormone in some way. They have several points of action on the cell membrane, and are effective in the control of dicot plants. 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, and Aminopyralid are examples of synthetic auxin herbicides.
 * Photosystem II inhibitors reduce electron flow from water to NADP+ at the photochemical step in photosynthesis. They bind to the Qb site on the D1 protein, and prevent quinone from binding to this site. Therefore, this group of compounds causes electrons to accumulate on chlorophyll molecules. As a consequence, oxidation reactions in excess of those normally tolerated by the cell occur, and the plant dies. The triazine herbicides (including atrazine) and urea derivatives (diuron) are photosystem II inhibitors.
 * Photosystem I inhibitors steal electrons from ferredoxins, specifically the normal pathway through FeS to Fdx to NADP+, leading to direct discharge of electrons on oxygen. As a result, reactive oxygen species are produced and oxidation reactions in excess of those normally tolerated by the cell occur, leading to plant death. Bipyridinium herbicides (such as diquat and paraquat) inhibit the FeS to Fdx step of that chain, while diphenyl ether herbicides (such as nitrofen, nitrofluorfen, and acifluorfen) inhibit the Fdx to NADP+ step.
 * HPPD inhibitors inhibit 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase, which are involved in tyrosine breakdown. Tyrosine breakdown products are used by plants to make carotenoids, which protect chlorophyll in plants from being destroyed by sunlight. If this happens, the plants turn white due to complete loss of chlorophyll, and the plants die. Mesotrione and sulcotrione are herbicides in this class; a drug, nitisinone, was discovered in the course of developing this class of herbicides.

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The rise of herbicide resistant weeds pose a problem to municipalities that primarily use glyphosate in weed management. Glyphosate (Roundup) the most extensively used pesticide in the world, has been labeled a possible carcinogen by the World Health Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Many towns and cities use glyphosate liberally in their parks and streets to eradicate weeds and grass. The alleged connections to a number of health issues—not just cancer—including birth defects, kidney failure, celiac disease, colitis, and autism—a number of European nations, including Holland, Denmark, and Sweden, have banned or restricted the use of glyphosate herbicides by local authorities. The United States's largest city, New York, will become the first to forbid harmful pesticides from being regularly used by city agencies. Additionally, its parks will be required to utilize organic gardening methods based on nature to control weeds. Similar actions have been taken by other jurisdictions. Baltimore banned a more specific set of pesticides last year, while Chicago has since 2014 discontinued using chemical weedkillers in 90 percent of its parks as part of a voluntary initiative. As an alternative to herbicides string or blade trimmers can be used to manage weeds along fence lines and pathways. In addition to preventing a favorable weed habitat, crack sealing will extend the useful life of driveways, walkways, parking lots, and sports fields. An effective technique to remove a small area is to simply cover weeds with weed barrier fabric, cardboard, or newspapers and secure them with mulch or a stone. Additionally, researchers are creating a new class of contact herbicides using the naturally occurring oils found in plants like lemongrass, orange peel, cloves, and others. Small annual broadleaf weed seedlings are being effectively controlled in urban settings by these organic compounds. ======

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The utilization of herbicides is spreading throughout the world. As millions of people relocate from rural to urban regions, many emerging nations (including India, China, and Bangladesh) are struggling to find labor to hand weed fields. Herbicides are much more affordable and accessible in these nations than manual labor for weeding by hand. History demonstrates that the same process has happened in industrializing nations in the past, including the United States, Germany, Japan, and South Korea: as laborers abandoned agriculture, herbicides were embraced. ======

Health and environmental effects
Herbicides have widely variable toxicity in addition to acute toxicity arising from ingestion of a significant quantity rapidly, and chronic toxicity arising from environmental and occupational exposure over long periods. Much public suspicion of herbicides revolves around a confusion between valid statements of acute toxicity as opposed to equally valid statements of lack of chronic toxicity at the recommended levels of usage. For instance, while glyphosate formulations with tallowamine adjuvants are acutely toxic, their use was found to be uncorrelated with any health issues like cancer in a massive US Department of Health study on 90,000 members of farmer families for over a period of 23 years. That is, the study shows lack of chronic toxicity, but cannot question the herbicide's acute toxicity.

Some herbicides cause a range of health effects ranging from skin rashes to death. The pathway of attack can arise from intentional or unintentional direct consumption, improper application resulting in the herbicide coming into direct contact with people or wildlife, inhalation of aerial sprays, or food consumption prior to the labelled preharvest interval. Under some conditions, certain herbicides can be transported via leaching or surface runoff to contaminate groundwater or distant surface water sources. Generally, the conditions that promote herbicide transport include intense storm events (particularly shortly after application) and soils with limited capacity to adsorb or retain the herbicides. Herbicide properties that increase likelihood of transport include persistence (resistance to degradation) and high water solubility.

Phenoxy herbicides are often contaminated with dioxins such as TCDD; research has suggested such contamination results in a small rise in cancer risk after occupational exposure to these herbicides. Triazine exposure has been implicated in a likely relationship to increased risk of breast cancer, although a causal relationship remains unclear.

Herbicide manufacturers have at times made false or misleading claims about the safety of their products. Chemical manufacturer Monsanto Company agreed to change its advertising after pressure from New York attorney general Dennis Vacco; Vacco complained about misleading claims that its spray-on glyphosate-based herbicides, including Roundup, were safer than table salt and "practically non-toxic" to mammals, birds, and fish (though proof that this was ever said is hard to find). Roundup is toxic and has resulted in death after being ingested in quantities ranging from 85 to 200 ml, although it has also been ingested in quantities as large as 500 ml with only mild or moderate symptoms. The manufacturer of Tordon 101 (Dow AgroSciences, owned by the Dow Chemical Company) has claimed Tordon 101 has no effects on animals and insects, in spite of evidence of strong carcinogenic activity of the active ingredient, picloram, in studies on rats.

The risk of Parkinson's disease has been shown to increase with occupational exposure to herbicides and pesticides. The herbicide paraquat is suspected to be one such factor.

All commercially sold, organic and non-organic herbicides must be extensively tested prior to approval for sale and labeling by the Environmental Protection Agency. However, because of the large number of herbicides in use, concern regarding health effects is significant. In addition to health effects caused by herbicides themselves, commercial herbicide mixtures often contain other chemicals, including inactive ingredients, which have negative impacts on human health.