User:Box73/sandbox7

I believe that my historical treatment of euphoria (below) would improve the article and seek to have it included. I seek to have this included. I invite the opinion and consensus of others. — βox73(৳alk) 00:01, 10 January 2017 (UTC)
 * My copy doesn't fit at Wickionary and making it fit wouldn't convey the historical coherence but would break it into a list of disconnected definitions.
 * Meanwhile the euphoria article, begins with a constructed, synthesized definition, then essentially becomes a list. This is less than what an encyclopedia can be.
 * I wrote this based on similar Wikipedia articles. This is a survey of views that will enrich readers' understanding. We aren't here to homogenize these views but to present them.
 * Such treatment is encyclopedic. Look at the articles art or love or happiness. These expanded presentations exist in the article body. Would these treatments not seem contrary to WP:NAD? What I have done is simply more summarized.
 * In the perspective of IAR, WP:NAD should not be used to bar improvement of articles. (We're not dealing with more objective/problematic copyright or sourcing issues.) So without resorting to WP:NAD, how is this not improving the article?

A 1706 English dictionary defined euphoria as "the well bearing of the Operation of a Medicine, i.e., when the patient finds himself eas'd or reliev'd by it".

In the 1860s, the English physician Thomas Laycock described euphoria as the feeling of bodily well-being and hopefulness; he noted its misplaced presentation in the final stage of some terminal illness es and attributed such euphoria to neurological dysfunction. Sigmund Freud's 1884 monograph Über Coca described (his own) consumption of cocaine producing "the normal euphoria of a healthy person", while about 1890 the German neuropsychiatrist Carl Wernicke lectured about the "abnormal euphoria" in patients with mania.

A 1903 article in The Boston Daily Globe refers to euphoria as "pleasant excitement" and "the sense of ease and well-being,". In 1920 Popular Science magazine described euphoria as "a high sounding name" meaning "feeling fit": normally making life worth living, motivating drug use, and ill formed in certain mental illnesses. In 1940 The Journal of Psychology defined euphoria as a "state of general well being ... and pleasantly toned feeling." A decade later, finding ordinary feelings of well being difficult to evaluate, American addiction researcher Harris Isbell redefined euphoria as behavioral changes and objective signs typical of morphine. • • In 1957 British pharmacologist D. A. Cahal did not regard opioid euphoria as medically undesirable but an affect which "enhance[s] the value of a major analgesic." The 1977 edition of A Concise Encyclopaedia of Psychiatry called euphoria "a mood of contentment and wellbeing," with pathologic associations when used in a psychiatric context. As a sign of cerebral disease, it was described as bland and out of context, representing an inability to experience negative emotion.

In the 21st century, euphoria is generally defined as a state of great happiness, wellbeing and excitement, which may be normal, or abnormal and inappropriate when associated with psychoactive drugs, manic states, or brain disease or injury.

Since the latter 20th century, the term has also commonly been applied to highly bullish economic behavior as financial- or market euphoria, such as used in John Kenneth Galbraith's 1994 book, A Short History of Financial Euphoria. (This use is not otherwise addressed in this article.)

Euphoria is a fuzzy and somewhat murky term. There are a variety of short general and medical definitions about euphoria (see below), but I can find no long dedicated writings, medical or otherwise. (The Encyclopedia of Positive Psychology might provide a reliable, dedicated but softer treatment.)

In medicine, psychology and neuroscience "euphoria" seems to be adjusted to fit the authors' context, sometimes to contrast other phenomena (e.g., mirth vs. mirthless laughter from DBS, mirthless becomes "euphoria"). The term is quasi-medical. MEDRS should be used with consideration. We shouldn't limit euphoria to affective neuroscience.

Euphoria is the domain of affective neuroscience but not exclusively.

What qualifies euphoria? Elevated pleasure essentially. The pleasure threshold of euphoria is fuzzy.
 * 1) Normal well-being typical of life
 * 2) Normal well-being restored by a medicine.
 * 3) Indifferent well-being characteristic of neurological insult (lobotomy) or progressing/endstage terminal illness.
 * 4) Exaggerated well-being of mania.
 * 5) Exaggerated well-being of psychoactive drug use.      ---
 * 6) Exaggerated well-being: stress induced: prolonged exertion, hypoxia, anorexia, sleep deprivation
 * 7) Anticipation and excitement: financial e., sports e., political e., lust
 * 8) Stimulation and excitement: fast cars, sky diving, rollercoaster
 * 9) Natural: orgasm, postpartum nurture, UVlight
 * 10) Cognitive restructure: pain of curative therapy is euphoric
 * 11) Religious / paranormal: ecstasy
 * 12) Pleasure of pain: euphoric state from masochism
 * 13) Sum of subeuphoric above
 * Well-being: A normal, healthy happiness and optimism. From the 17th century this was the normal feeling (being well) restored by medicines.
 * A state of elation, joy and intense happiness.
 * As above, but necessarily out of context, or disproportionate to reality. This relates to euphoriant drugs, mental illness (mania, psychosis, dementia), neurological illness, and assorted causes (some cases of: hypoxia, sleep deprivation, anorexia, DBS, extreme trauma, terminal illness, Pain related: immediate pain relief, reinterpretation of pain as beneficial, erotic masochism). Some sources seem to make "out of context" predominate over intensity.
 * As above, but not out of context (perhaps out of ordinary context). Peak experiences, significant social, financial or professional awards (Nobel prize, $1 million + lottery). sum of many sub-euphoric pleasures, return of loved mate/child.Special cases music and related, intense laughter, prolonged exercise, yoga, acupuncture.
 * A state of excitement. While frequent, excitement is not a necessary component of euphoria (e.g., heroin euphoria). Primary excitement seems to account for the popular use of "euphoria", such as financial (market) euphoria, crowd euphoria, holiday euphoria, euphoria of sports fandom, ...of political/social movements, ...of novel medical treatments and the like. May be considered anticipatory pleasure (as opposed to consummatory pleasure).

Neuroscience has been concerned with the forward procession of impulses. This is well reasoned. However, the three primary drug euphoriants (opioids, THC, and cocaine/amphetamines) all act on presynaptic terminals.

Berridge's all circuits activated observation may be correct or substantially correct.

Euphoria has ascended from 17th c definitions of a medicine making a person feel normal and well ie, well being.

"The discovery that opioids were acting through specific receptors, inducing changes in the cAMP, was not sufficient to clarify why they abolish pain and give a feeling of well-being and sometimes euphoria ."

Fasting full text;

Qualities of euphoria (Forcing absolute qualities only, creates false dilemmas.)


 * 1) Intensity. Most common but subjective. Modern definition. Excitement not necessary (opioid). Intensity is sometimes downplayed (3.1).
 * 2) Pleasurable affect extending to mood.
 * 3) Out of context. Some consider necessary. Philosophically: "objectless emotion".
 * 4) Abnormal / pathological. Psychiatric (mania+), neurological illness. May be shallow. Some sources discount intensity here.
 * 5) Stress induced Hypoxia, sleep deprivation, severe injury?, pain cessation?
 * 6) Drug induced. Current archhtype. Most pronounced.
 * 7) Biological needs. Survival: Sex, food,
 * 8) Social needs. Extensive in humans. Serves biological needs/survival: Humor, music (etc.), achievement: social status/group, fortune (money, other).
 * 9) Threat reduction. Immediate or active relief.
 * 10) Special considerations.
 * 11) Combination: drug+drug, drug+sex, drug+mania, extreme hunger+food, many sub-euphoric items, etc.
 * 12) Rapid change: psychoactive drug, lottery
 * 13) ↑Intensity ∝ ↓Duration (inversely related). (exceptions in neuropsych illness)
 * 14) ↑Intensity = ↑Similarity
 * 15) Excludes dysphoria. But may permit anxiety.

Money and other secondary rewards can be euphoric. There is no consensus they are not. We should note that contrary claims are based on animal research. Consider interpretation.

"A severe abdominal pain can be a source of anxiety, which will likely elicit a stress-response. However, Thus, the interpretation of an external stressor can influence the physiological response to it.     — Sapolsky RM. 'Social Status and Health in Humans and Other Animals' Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2004.33:393-418."

Consider "like I won a cruise"

"For contacts at which smiles and laughter were observed, a positive correlation between voltage and mood was found: The higher the voltage, the stronger was the mood elevation. which might be mediated by a different brain network (Haq et al. 2011). (Haq et al. 2011).      — Synofzik M, Schlaepfer TE, Fins JJ. 'How Happy Is Too Happy? Euphoria, Neuroethics, and Deep Brain Stimulation of the Nucleus Accumbens' AJOB Neuroscience Vol. 3, Iss. 1, 2012"

"This refers to..."

"The NAc region appears more closely tied to euphoria rather than context-dependent mirth. Though previous reports have divided induced laughter into mirthful and mirthless (Wild et al., 2003), we would distinguish the euphoria experienced by patients in our series from reports of context-dependent evoked laughter.    — Haq IU, Foote KD, Goodman WG, Wu SS, Sudhyadhom A, Ricciuti N, Siddiqui MS, Bowers D, Jacobson CE, Ward H, Okun MS. 'Smile and laughter induction and intraoperative predictors of response to deep brain stimulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder'. Neuroimage. 2011 Jan;54 Suppl 1:S247-55."

If the same NAc DBS patient actually won a cruise, and asked how he felt, said, "happy ... like when my DBS was adjusted," wouldn't that be euphoria? (Or a cocaine user, say, "happy ... like doing lots of coke," etc.?)


 * Intensity. Obvious. (It isn't clear how intense, intense is.)

"However, little is known about the experience, and how may relate to variability in medial orbitofrontal cortex structure.     — Carlson JM, Cha J, Fekete T, Greenberg T, Mujica-Parodi LR. 'Left medial orbitofrontal cortex volume correlates with skydive-elicited euphoric experience.' Brain Struct Funct. 2015 Nov 7."

Carlson equates euphoria with extreme joy (hence the singular "this state"). Schultz says, "...many enments differ by more than a few degrees." Euphoria can occur with various stimuli, various forms of pleasure. Euphoria is largely a matter of intense, extreme, amplified, exaggerated, dense pleasure.

"Eating, drinking, sexual activity, and parenting invoke pleasure, an emotion that promotes repetition of these behaviors, are essential for survival. Euphoria, a feeling or state of, is, aspired to one's essential biological needs that are satisfied.    — Bearn J, O'Brien M. 'Addicted to Euphoria: The History, Clinical Presentation, and Management of Party Drug Misuse.' Int Rev Neurobiol. 2015;120:205-33."

"Euphoria - of physical and emotional well-being, usually of psychological origin. Also seen in organic mental disorders and in toxic and drug-induced states. See also bipolar disorders     — Key DSM-IV Mental Status Exam Phrases"

"I believe moods can also be brought about by highly dense emotional experiences. Dense anger can result in an irritable mood, just as .    — Paul Ekman, Emotions Revealed, p 50.  (Using this source here based on Ekman's qualifications and esteem offered by affective neuroscientists.)"

"This article surveys recent findings regarding brain mechanisms of hedonic ‘liking’, such as the existence of cubic-millimeter hedonic hotspots in nucleus accumbens and ventral pallidum for opioid .    — Kent C. Berridge. '‘Liking’ and ‘wanting’ food rewards: Brain substrates and roles in eating disorders' Physiol Behav. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2010 July 14."

However, how intense is intense?

"The term euphoria is used to indicate, rarely associated with psychomotor excitement. ; it differs from mania as described in patients with bipolar disorders, because the mood change is stable and patients do not exhibit thought acceleration or the incessant impulse to think up new ideas and perform new activities.    — Nocentini, Ugo; Caltagirone, Carlo; Tedeschi, Gioacchino (2012). Neuropsychiatric Dysfunction in Multiple Sclerosis. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9788847026766. p 121"


 * Often out of context. Detailed below. (Some would consider out of context to be abnormal/pathological euphoria.)

(1, 2.1, and 3 are IMO clearly true.)


 * 1) It is out of context, without apparent cause.    (common element of MedSci definitions)
 * 2) It is out of ordinary context...
 * 3) caused by an extraordinary event    (winning a cruise, major lottery, nobel prize)
 * 4) caused by relief of an intense threat    (needs better support)
 * 5)  caused by many proximate positive events      ("best day of my life")
 * 6) To induce an evolved (high value) behavior.     (Mate. Sex. Children.)
 * 7)  It is socially induced or amplified      (further exploring theme)

1. Out of context e.g., "inappropriate to real events"

It is clearly true for euphoriants, and mania, etc. For DBS..."For contacts at which smiles and laughter were observed, a positive correlation between voltage and mood was found: The higher the voltage, the stronger was the mood elevation. which might be mediated by a different brain network (Haq et al. 2011). (Haq et al. 2011).      — Synofzik M, Schlaepfer TE, Fins JJ. 'How Happy Is Too Happy? Euphoria, Neuroethics, and Deep Brain Stimulation of the Nucleus Accumbens' AJOB Neuroscience Vol. 3, Iss. 1, 2012"

"This refers to..."

"The NAc region appears more closely tied to euphoria rather than context-dependent mirth. Though previous reports have divided induced laughter into mirthful and mirthless (Wild et al., 2003), we would distinguish the euphoria experienced by patients in our series from reports of context-dependent evoked laughter.    — Haq IU, Foote KD, Goodman WG, Wu SS, Sudhyadhom A, Ricciuti N, Siddiqui MS, Bowers D, Jacobson CE, Ward H, Okun MS. 'Smile and laughter induction and intraoperative predictors of response to deep brain stimulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder'. Neuroimage. 2011 Jan;54 Suppl 1:S247-55."

2. Out of ordinary context. Out of context isn't necessary for euphoria. If the same NAc DBS patient actually won a cruise, and asked how he felt, said, "happy ... like when my DBS was adjusted," wouldn't that be euphoria? (Or a heroin user, say, "happy ... like the first time I did heroin," etc.?)

see use in general definitions.

"Here, we propose that there also exists an (IWS) that is triggered by success and and increased self-confidence. It motivates efforts to challenge, and promotes reconciliation.      — Sloman L, Sturman ED, Price JS. Winning and losing: an evolutionary approach to mood disorders and their therapy. Can J Psychiatry. 2011 Jun;56(6):324-32. Review."

"There is a system measuring the pleasure of a thing (euphoria), a system learning the usefulness of repeating actions (reinforcement), and a system recognizing change (disappointment). In parallel, there are the dysphoria, aversion, and relief systems.    — A. David Redish, The Mind within the Brain, p 34  (Using this source here because Redish is a professor of Neuroscience at U Minnesota.)"

2.1 Extraordinary events.

"Winning at compulsive gambling has been compared to drug abuse since the behavior may become compulsive; winning is exceedingly reinforcing, and the gamblers self-report a drug-like euphoria state looked on as a positive reinforcer.    — Jasinski DR, Johnson RE, Hickey JE, Haertzen CA, Henningfield JE, Kumor K. Progress report from the NIDA Addiction Research Center Baltimore, Maryland (1984). NIDA Res Monogr. 1984;55:59-65."

"As psychologists use the term [emotion],, a brief startle at an unexpected noise, unrelenting profound grief, the fleeting pleasant sensations from a warm breeze, cardiovascular changes in response to viewing a film, the stalking and murder of an innocent victim, lifelong love of an offspring, feeling chipper for no known reason, and interest in a news bulletin.    — Russell JA, Barrett LF. Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called emotion: dissecting the elephant. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1999 May;76(5):805-19. [p 805] Review."

"Nonetheless, and dysphoria of maintaining self control during settlement and disclosure phases (Goffman 1961) imply varying degrees of interest and excitement.      — Saunders, D. M., & Turner, D. E. (1987). Gambling and leisure: The case of racing. Leisure studies, 6(3), 281-299."

"What happens now to our level of happiness after hitting the jackpot? First, the moment of winning is an occurrence which causes a quite long-lasting state of happiness in the sense of a top experience.... However, does not hold forever.     —  Lutter, M. (2007). Book Review: Winning a lottery brings no happiness!. Journal of Happiness Studies, 8(1), 155-160. (p 156)"

The euphoria of winning can also be collective such as emotional investment in a sports team or even financial investment.

"Localisation of regions of intense pleasure responses will lead to a better understanding of the reward mechanisms in the brain. Here we present a novel fMRI video paradigm designed to evoke high levels of pleasure in a specific test group and to distinguish regions of pleasure from anticipation. It exploits the intense commitment of soccer supporters and thus captures the .<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — McLean, J., Brennan, D., Wyper, D., Condon, B., Hadley, D., & Cavanagh, J. (2009). Localisation of regions of intense pleasure response evoked by soccer goals. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 171(1), 33-43."

"Watching European football competitions had a positive impact in the city of Dijon with a decrease of stroke numbers. European championship is possibly associated with higher television audience and long-lasting euphoria although other factors may be involved.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Aboa-Eboulé C, Béjot Y, Cottenet J, Khellaf M, Jacquin A, Durier J, Rouaud O, Hervieu-Begue M, Osseby GV, Giroud M, Quantin C. The impact of World and European Football Cups on stroke in the population of Dijon, France: a longitudinal study from 1986 to 2006. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2014 Mar;23(3): 229-35."

"But independent of all these beneficial characteristics that sports spectatorship may have in comparison to active sports participation, the phenomena in sportsfanship should be of interest in its own right.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Zillmann, D., Bryant, J., & Sapolsky, B. S. (1989). Enjoyment from sports spectatorship. Sports, games, and play: Social and psychological viewpoints, 2, 241-278. [p 254]"

"People love to win. It brings them a sense of joy and accomplishment that is magical and euphoric.... As an avid sports fan, I was stricken with awe at the celebrations and euphoria surrounding teams winning championships.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    —  Keene, J. (2011). Who's Really Winning? An in-depth look at intercollegiate athletics and their impact on undergraduate education. pp 2, 27"

2.2 Relief of pain or extreme threat.

Being Sapolsky, the following shouldn't be discounted as metaphorical. It also demonstrates that cognitive influence may exist:

"A severe abdominal pain can be a source of anxiety, which will likely elicit a stress-response. However, Thus, the interpretation of an external stressor can influence the physiological response to it.<p style='line-height:100%;'>     — Sapolsky RM. 'Social Status and Health in Humans and Other Animals' Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2004.33:393-418."

"full text])"

''' 2.3 A sum of lesser pleasures. ''' Not sufficiently, explicitly supported but examples of the principle include speedball (cocaine + heroin), benzodiazepines added to opioids, and erotic asphyxia (asphyxia + orgasm).

"Various rationales have been proposed to explain the combined use of cocaine and heroin in humans. These include a reduction in the magnitude of undesired side effects, enhancement in the positive effects of either drug alone, induction of a euphoric feeling, beyond superior positive effects, or independent, non-additive effects even though the drugs are administered concurrently (Kosten et al., 1987; Foltin and Fischman, 1992; Hemby et al., 1996). The hypothesis of an intensified euphoria with speedball parallels preclinical results showing that cocaine and heroin potentiate the reinforcing effects of one another in studies utilizing self-administration (SA) paradigms in non-human primate models (Mattox et al., 1997; Rowlett and Woolverton, 1997; Rowlett et al., 2005). <p style='line-height:100%;'>    —  Pattison, L. P., & Hemby, S. E. (2013). The Dopaminergic Correlates Of Chronic Cocaine, Heroin And Speedball Administration. Functional Alterations in the Dopamine Transporter of Rodents Following Self-Administration of Cocaine, Heroin and Speedball, 1. (p 3)"

"The reported subjective effects following speedball use in humans are enhanced euphoria and decreased aversive side effects of cocaine or heroin alone. <p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Pattison, L. P., McIntosh, S., Sexton, T., Xiao, R., Grigg, A., Childers, S. R., & Hemby, S. E. (2013). Effects Of Cocaine, Heroin And Speedball Self-Administration On Dopamine Transporter Binding Sites. Functional Alterations in the Dopamine Transporter of Rodents Following Self-Administration of Cocaine, Heroin and Speedball, 118. p 120"

"Our findings are consistent with indications of transitions in UK cities from the primary injection of heroin alone towards the simultaneous injection of heroin and crack as a speedball [2,3]. The addition of crack was rationalised as driven by a search for a “better high”. Prior to experimenting with speedball, most had experienced smoking crack alongside their heroin use, and the injection of heroin had become functional or “normal”, no longer providing a “buzz”. Speedball was said to introduce a new “euphoria”, the heights of which had not been experienced before (“Man, it was unbelievable”). <p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Rhodes, T., Briggs, D., Kimber, J., Jones, S., & Holloway, G. (2007). Crack–heroin speedball injection and its implications for vein care: qualitative study. Addiction, 102(11), 1782-1790. (p 6 in isolated pdf)"

"As 2-AG endocannabinoid inhibits the production of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA,63,64 thereby reducing its inhibitory action, it has been hypothesized that compounds that block the release of brain endocannabinoids may increase control on compulsive sexual behaviors. Similarly, intravenous naltrexone, which totally blocks oxytocin release,65 greatly reduces orgasmic pleasure with a concomitant production of b-endorphin, with a resulting failure of post-orgasmic libido decrease. Therefore, it has been hypothesized that compounds that modulate oxytocinergic transmission should perhaps facilitate the reorganization of sexual desire. <p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Marazziti, D., Presta, S., Baroni, S., Silvestri, S., & Dell'Osso, L. (2014). Behavioral addictions: a novel challenge for psychopharmacology. CNS spectrums, 19(06), 486-495."

3. To induce an evolved (high value) behavior: Mate, Sex, Children

Euphoria frequently occurs in courtship and sex.

"...Depending on the associated mechanisms involved, highly pleasurable activity can produce a sedated euphoria (e.g., marijuana) or alternatively In each case, the resultant euphorias are qualitatively similar even though one is associated with a high level of relaxation and the other with a high level of excitement.     — Kissin, Benjamin (2013). Conscious and Unconscious Programs in the Brain . Boston, MA: Springer. ISBN 9781461292876 . p 333"

"As with their use of alcohol, people use cocaine to change the way they feel. Their objective is to experience the euphoria described as a high. At low doses, this includes feelings of well—being, conﬁdence, creativity, self-esteem, and gregariousness. At high doses, however, <p style='line-height:100%;'>    Smith, Thomas Spence (1995). Strong Interaction. University Of Chicago Press.ISBN 9780226764146."

This quote also addresses another Schultz item: affection of parent to new infant. "Additionally, EO [(endogenous opioids)] contributes to maternal euphoria and the inhibition of stress-related HPA reactivity to protect the foetus in the late-gestation (65) and lactation phases (65). Overall, EO serve as mediator of social rewards, affiliation, motivation and attenuation of separation-induced pain and anxiety (66), such that a phenomenological resemblance between narcotic addiction and social attachment has been proposed: both display an initial attachment phase, a tolerance-development phase and similar symptoms upon withdrawal (67). This is consistent with the idea that exogenous opiates may commandeer maternal motivation to seek and care for their baby (68)<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Swain, J. E.; Kim, P.; Ho, S. S. (2011). 'Neuroendocrinology of Parental Response to Baby-Cry'. Journal of Neuroendocrinology 23 (11): 1036–1041."

''' 4. Socially induced or amplified. ' Explicit'' support presently lacking. Perhaps this belongs with 3 above as Community.


 * Often exclusive of negative affect/dysphoria. Manic mixed states and DBS contradict it, with anxiety overlapping euphoria.

"full text])"

These last two may have potential depending on additional and sufficient support:
 * The more intense the euphoria, the more similar to other euphorias. This approaches what Berridge says about the full set of pleasure systems activated.

"[I]ntense euphoria is harder to come by than everyday pleasures. The reason may be that strong enhancement of pleasure—like the chemically induced pleasure bump we produced in lab animals—seems to require activation of the entire network at once. Defection of any single component dampens the high.   Whether the pleasure circuit—and in particular, the ventral pallidum—works the same way in humans is unclear.<p style='line-height:100%;'>      — Morten L. Kringelbach and Kent C. Berridge 'The Joyful Mind'. Scientific American, August 2012. p 45"

"...Depending on the associated mechanisms involved, highly pleasurable activity can produce a sedated euphoria (e.g., marijuana) or alternatively a highly excitatory euphoria (e.g., orgasm). In each case, the resultant euphorias are qualitatively similar even though one is associated with a high level of relaxation and the other with a high level of excitement.   A similar situation applies with the use of heroin and cocaine, both of which when injected intravenously produce an immediate state of euphoria. However, the feeling associated with heroin is characterized by extreme relaxation whereas that with cocaine is characterized by extreme stimulation. Yet paradoxically, both types of addicts describe the “rush” of either heroin or cocaine injection as being similar to the feeling of an orgasm. <p style='line-height:100%;'>      — Kissin, Benjamin (2013). Conscious and Unconscious Programs in the Brain. Boston, MA: Springer. ISBN 9781461292876. p 333"


 * The more intense the euphoria, the shorter the duration. This seems apparent from exploring the topic but I can't yet find it explicitly and generally stated.

REFERENCE DEFINITIONS

Break
EDIT LEAD SENTENCE

Requiring any single sentence comprehensive but preferred definition is a false dilemma. The lead sentence should be a basic definition, elaborated in following sentences. " and Georgia face " signify proposed text. "Euphoria is an affective state in which a person experiences an intense feeling of well-being, and happiness.   or Euphoria is a feeling of intense well-being and happiness."
 * Move "excitement" from lead sentence. It is not common to all definitions, nor all euphorias. For example, excitement is not an element of heroin or (typically) cannabis. (see collapsed box below) Excitement belongs in a sentence that follows.
 * Excitement is characteristic of stimulant euphoria and Bearn & O'Brien's cited article is from a dedicated volume of the International Review of Neurobiology entitled: "The Neuropsychiatric Complications of Stimulant Abuse".
 * Excitement is characteristic of so called anticipatory pleasure. Elevated well-being / happiness / joy is characteristic of consummatory pleasure. (This fits with dopamine stimulants & excitement.) Writing of seeking / appetitive incentive states / dopamine Alcaro and Panksepp actually say, "a feeling of excitement/euphoria (not ‘pleasure’)" Parenthetical phrase is verbatim.
 * Excitement is characteristic of market euphoria, crowd euphoria, sports euphoria, holiday euphoria, yada, yada, (whether by name or activity)

"Heroin" "Abusers typically report feeling a surge of pleasurable sensation—a 'rush.' The intensity of the rush is a function of how much drug is taken and how rapidly the drug enters the brain and binds to the opioid receptors. With heroin, the rush is usually accompanied by a warm flushing of the skin, dry mouth, and a heavy feeling in the extremities, which may be accompanied by nausea, vomiting, and severe itching. After the initial effects, users usually will be drowsy for several hours; mental function is clouded; heart function slows; and breathing is also severely slowed, sometimes enough to be life-threatening.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — NIDA: What are the immediate (short-term) effects of heroin use?" "Right after taking heroin, you get a rush of good feelings and happiness. Then, for several hours, you feel as if the world has slowed down. You think slowly and may walk slowly. Some users say you feel like you're in a dream.   In an Illinois study of suburban heroin users, some described the feeling as “covered in a warm blanket, where worries are gone.”<p style='line-height:100%;'>      — WebMD: Heroin: What You Need to Know: How Does It Make You Feel?" "Subjects mentioned as the most pleasant effects the 'rush' (glow or warmth), the sense of distance from their problems, and the tranquilizing powers of the drug. Pleasure that was experienced as bodily sensation often expanded into a feeling of psychological well-being.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    —  Norman Zinberg. (1984) Drug, Set, and Setting: The Basis of Controlled Intoxicant Use, Yale Univ. Press. p 119"

"Cannabis" "The 'high' is a complex experience, characterized by a quickening of mental associations and a sharpened sense of humour, sometimes described as a state of 'fatuous euphoria'. The user feels relaxed and calm, in a dreamlike state disconnected from real world. The intoxicated subject often has diffculty in carrying on a coherent conversation, and may drift into daydreams and fantasies. Drowsiness and sleep may eventually ensue.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    —  Iversen L. Cannabis and the brain. Brain. 2003 Jun;126(Pt 6):1252-70. Review." "Euphoria frequently includes excitement or less often relaxation, such as from opioids. (or 'as induced by opioids')" "Euphoria may be excessive, out of context or inappropriate to real events, a characteristic of euphoriant drugs or clinical mania. (or similar wording)" Euphoria actually represents forms of pleasure, as Panksepp refers to, "the diverse forms of affective distress and euphoria that can arise from the basic emotional circuits of all mammalian brains." Berridge also ponders "dopamine" euphoria, [http://lsa.umich.edu/psych/research&labs/berridge/publications/2015%20Berridge%20&%20Kringelbach%20Pleasure%20systems%20in%20the%20brain%20-%20Neuron.pdf "Another puzzle has been that if dopamine does not cause sensory pleasure, why are dopamine-promoting drugs such as cocaine or methamphetamine so pleasant?". (p 657)] This independently surfaces in a 2013 study showing that "an i.v. dose of amphetamine [which produces significant euphoria does not cause any acute opioid release in healthy human subjects." (abstract / [p 767 ] )] "Euphoria may be a normal affect resulting from ..."I am writing a paragraph about the etymology of the term.
 * Having said that, outside of opioid/cannabinoid intoxication, excitement seems definitive, sometimes even predominate over intensity of pleasure.
 * Add "sometimes out of context" phrase: sometimes or often, out of context, or inappropriate to the situation, or not consistent with reality, etc. In psychiatry euphoria now generally assumes drug induced or pathologic, Could be placed in second sentence.
 * "A form of pleasure". This is a misunderstanding of the cited source. Schultz is not referring to euphoria generally but to "the euphoria reported by drug users," and not "the euphoria reported by manic persons" or "the euphoria reported by long distance runners". If he is qualifying euphoria per se, why would he separately list runner's high, which is also euphoric? (Orgasm and a new mother's affection (p 1246) may be euphoric as well.)

Etymology and word history"A 1706 dictionary defines euphoria as 'the well bearing of the Operation of a Medicine, i.e., when the patient finds himself eas'd or reliev'd by it'. In the 1860s, the English physician Thomas Laycock described euphoria as the feeling of bodily well-being and hopefulness; he noted its misplaced presentation in the final stage of some terminal illness es and attributed such euphoria to neurological dysfunction. Sigmund Freud's 1884 monograph Über Coca described (his own) consumption of cocaine producing 'the normal euphoria of a healthy person', while about 1890 the German neuropsychiatrist Carl Wernicke lectured about the 'abnormal euphoria' in patients with mania. A 1903 article in The Boston Daily Globe refers to euphoria as 'pleasant excitement' and 'the sense of ease and well-being,'. In 1920 Popular Science magazine described euphoria as 'a high sounding name' meaning 'feeling fit': normally making life worth living, motivating drug use, and ill formed in certain mental illnesses. In 1940 The Journal of Psychology defined euphoria as a 'state of general well being ... and pleasantly toned feeling.' A decade later, finding ordinary feelings of well being difficult to evaluate, addiction researcher Harris Isbell redefined euphoria as behavioral changes and objective signs typical of morphine. In 1957 British pharmacologist D. A. Cahal did not regard opioid euphoria as medically undesirable but an affect which 'enhance[s] the value of a major analgesic.' The 1977 edition of A Concise Encyclopaedia of Psychiatry called euphoria,'a mood of contentment and wellbeing,' with pathologic associations in a psychiatric context. As a sign of cerebral disease, it is described as bland, out of context, and representing an inability to experience negative emotion. In the 21st century, euphoria is generally defined as a highly elated state which may be normal, or abnormal and inappropriate when asssociated with psychoactive drugs, manic states, or brain disease or injury. Since the latter 20th century, the term has also commonly been applied to highly bullish economic behavior as financial- or market euphoria.""A 1706 English dictionary defines euphoria as 'the well bearing of the Operation of a Medicine, i.e., when the patient finds himself eas'd or reliev'd by it'. In the 1860s, the English physician Thomas Laycock described euphoria as the feeling of bodily well-being and hopefulness; he noted its misplaced presentation in the final stage of some terminal illness es and attributed such euphoria to neurological dysfunction. Sigmund Freud's 1884 monograph Über Coca described (his own) consumption of cocaine producing 'the normal euphoria of a healthy person', while about 1890 the German neuropsychiatrist Carl Wernicke lectured about the 'abnormal euphoria' in patients with mania. A 1903 article in The Boston Daily Globe refers to euphoria as 'pleasant excitement' and 'the sense of ease and well-being,'. In 1920 Popular Science magazine described euphoria as 'a high sounding name' meaning 'feeling fit': normally making life worth living, motivating drug use, and ill formed in certain mental illnesses. In 1940 The Journal of Psychology defined euphoria as a 'state of general well being ... and pleasantly toned feeling.' A decade later, finding ordinary feelings of well being difficult to evaluate, addiction researcher Harris Isbell redefined euphoria as behavioral changes and objective signs typical of morphine. In 1957 Cahal did not regard opioid euphoria as medically undesirable but an affect which 'enhance[s] the value of a major analgesic.' The 1977 edition of A Concise Encyclopaedia of Psychiatry called euphoria,'a mood of contentment and wellbeing,' with pathologic associations in a psychiatric context. As a sign of cerebral disease, it is described as bland, out of context, and representing an inability to experience negative emotion. In the 21st century, euphoria is generally defined as a highly elated state of happiness and wel lbeing,which may be normal, or abnormal and inappropriate when asssociated with psychoactive drugs, manic states, or brain disease or injury. Since the latter 20th century, the term has also commonly been applied to highly bullish economic behavior as financial- or market euphoria."Isbell in NIDA cited in,

What about the inactivated pathways involved in euphoria? This becomes apparent considering euphoria occurring from lobotomy, neurological insult, hypoxia, sleep deprivation, etc., both the shallow and runaway nature, and issues like inhibition of right orbital cortex during orgasm. There is such a qualitative difference between a meaningful, real, normal euphoria and the mindless, shallow, pathological euphoria.

This article is essentially a list.

Lead, 2nd paragraph: "'Intense euphoria is believed to occur via the simultaneous activation of every hedonic hotspot within the brain's reward system.'"At best, "It is proposed that intense euphoria occurs via..." I am aware of two neuroscientists—Kringelbach and Berridge—believing this. But then, Kringelbach and Berridge's quote continues, "Whether the pleasure circuit—and in particular, the ventral pallidum—works the same way in humans is unclear."

The first sentence indicates the article is about euphoria in humans.

In modern philosophy, euphoria is discussed as an "objectless emotion". An editor familiar with philosophy might be invited to contribute in this regard.

Despite the skimpy pleasure article there is enough material and significance to justify a euphoria article. — Box73 (talk) 10:46, 21 July 2016 (UTC)

Mood syndromes, namely mania and depression, may suggest the frontal lobe syndrome. The euphoria seen in mania may, superﬁcially, appear similar to the euphoria seen in some cases of the frontal lobe syndrome; however, there are some clear differences. The euphoria of mania is heightened, full, and quite infectious and this is in marked contrast with the shallow, silly euphoria of the frontal lobe syndrome, which lacks any infectiousness. -- Moore, David P.; Puri, Basant K. (2012). Textbook of Clinical Neuropsychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience 3E (3 edition ed.). CRC Press. p 285

LASTLY. In modern philosophy, euphoria is discussed as an "objectless emotion". I didn't address this topic but an editor familiar with philosophy might be invited to contribute in this regard.

Opioid use results in initial euphoria or “rush” with warm ﬂushing of the skin and heaviness in the extremities; nausea is common especially among ﬁrst-timers. Acute euphoria may be followed by a longer less intense period of tranquillity, euphoria, apathy, or dysphoria.

"Affective state" is a conventional term. Where else does euphoria as a "form of pleasure" appear in the literature? (The closest I can find is this dated consumer psychology article which says "joy is a somewhat intense form of pleasure," based on previous sources.) Though awkward, it would be better to call euphoria "forms of pleasure", as Panksepp refers to, "the diverse forms of affective distress and euphoria that can arise from the basic emotional circuits of all mammalian brains." (Berridge also ponders the "dopamine" euphoria, "Another puzzle has been that if dopamine does not cause sensory pleasure, why are dopamine-promoting drugs such as cocaine or methamphetamine so pleasant?", (p 657) which is validated by a 2013 study showing that "an i.v. dose of amphetamine [which produces significant euphoria does not cause any acute opioid release in healthy human subjects."(abstract / [p 767 ] )] )
 * Add "sometimes out of context" phrase: sometimes or often, out of context, or inappropriate to the situation, or not consistent with reality, etc. Could be placed in second sentence. This is associated with pathological euphoria, i.e., drug, mania, etc.
 * "A form of pleasure". In a general sense this is true but also obvious since happiness is a form of pleasure. Here "a form of pleasure" is added to convey some highly defined state exclusive of other intense pleasures. This is a misunderstanding of the cited sources. Schultz is not referring to euphoria generally but to recreational drug euphoria. If he is qualifying euphoria per se, why would he separately list runner's high, which is also euphoric?

Anticipatory pleasure includes momentary pleasure of the anticipation. <ref name=":1">

Note re Reward system article:

And the joys of the legal tender

Are extrinsic rewards, money not pleasurable?
This article is so much improved over a year or even six months ago. However... from the article currently,
 * "Intrinsic rewards are unconditioned rewards that are attractive and motivate behavior because they are inherently pleasurable. Extrinsic rewards, such as money, are conditioned rewards that are attractive and motivate behavior, but are not pleasurable . Extrinsic rewards derive their motivational value as a result of a learned association (i.e., conditioning) with intrinsic rewards." ("Lead" section)
 * "Pleasure is a component of reward, but not all rewards are pleasurable (e.g., money does not elicit pleasure ). Stimuli that are naturally pleasurable, and therefore attractive, are known as intrinsic rewards, whereas stimuli that are attractive and motivate approach behavior, but not inherently pleasurable, are termed extrinsic rewards. Extrinsic rewards are rewarding as a result of a learned association with an intrinsic reward. In other words, extrinsic rewards function as motivational magnets that elicit "wanting", but not "liking" reactions once they have been acquired ." ("Pleasure centers" section)

1. Extrinsic rewards may indeed be pleasurable (and remain pleasurable). Only extrinsic rewards can be higher order rewards (Schultz, p 858) and higher order rewards may elicit pleasure, e.g., water, to a thirsty person. (p 855); the sight of a delicious apple. (p 864).

Further money may be pleasurable. It invokes anticipatory pleasure. (see below)

In the cited ref, Schultz says: "Pleasure as an unconditioned reward can serve to produce higher order, conditioned [extrinsic] rewards that are also pleasurable . (p 864)" "Rewards have the potential to elicit positive emotions. The foremost emotion evoked by rewards is pleasure.... Water is pleasant for a thirsty person, and food for a hungry one. The rewarding effects of taste are based on the pleasure it evokes. Winning in a big lottery is even more pleasant . (p 855)""... the prevailing reason why particular stimuli, objects, events, situations, and activities are rewarding may be pleasure . This applies first of all to sex ... and to the primary homeostatic rewards of food and liquid, and extends to money ... (p 859)" Similarly Berridge et al. say,"Neuroimaging and neural recording studies of have found that rewards ranging from sweet taste to intravenous cocaine, winning money or a smiling face activate many brain structures... But which of those brain systems actually cause the pleasure of the reward ?""In humans, cocaine, sex, food, or money rewards all activate the ventral pallidum, including the posterior subregion that corresponds to the hedonic hotspot in rats. ... We think ... the firing patterns of these ventral pallidal neurons encode hedonic ‘liking’ for the pleasant sensation, rather than simpler sensory features.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Berridge, K.C., Robinson, T.E. & Aldridge, J.W. Dissecting components of reward: 'liking', 'wanting', and learning. Current Opinion in Pharmacology, 9, 65-73, 2009." In the introduction of a study coauthored by Schultz:"It is therefore conceivable that monetary rewards act through imagination of rewarding objects that can be acquired through them. Indeed in a recent reward imagination study participants who imagined monetary or other types of secondary rewards activated primary reward regions. However, monetary rewards have become so ubiquitous in our daily life that they can be considered as rewards in their own right. Functional neuroimaging studies using monetary rewards have found the same brain regions as those involved in processing primary rewards also without asking participants to imagine.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    —Miyapuram, Krishna P.; Tobler, Philippe N.; Gregorios-Pippas, Lucy; Schultz, Wolfram (2012). 'BOLD responses in reward regions to hypothetical and imaginary monetary rewards'. NeuroImage. 59 (2): 1692–1699." Overlooked was anticipatory pleasure: "Consummatory pleasure is experienced while directly engaging in an experience whereas anticipatory pleasure is related to future experiences and is composed of both prediction of eventual reward and momentary pleasure of the anticipation .<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Ritsner, Michael (2014). Anhedonia: A Comprehensive Handbook Volume II: Neuropsychiatric And Physical Disorders. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 211."

"To be clear, we distinguish anticipatory pleasure from similar constructs such as approach motivation (for example) in that anticipatory pleasure is thought to involve the pleasure experienced in anticipation and the ability to image a stimulus. Approach motivation on the other hand is more related to drive, fun seeking and reward responsiveness.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Gard, David E.; Kring, Ann M.; Gard, Marja Germans; Horan, William P.; Green, Michael F. (2007). 'Anhedonia in Schizophrenia: Distinctions between Anticipatory and Consummatory Pleasure'. Schizophrenia research. 93 (1-3): p. 1088.""'After having experienced its nutritious and pleasantly tasting contents, the apple with its shape and color has become a reinforcer in its own right. As a higher order, conditioned reward, the apple serves all the defining functions of rewards, namely, learning, approach behavior, and pleasure. ... seeing the delicious apple evokes a pleasant feeling .' (Schultz, p 864), and, 'There are also desires for imagined or even impossible rewards... Desire has multiple relations to pleasure; it may be pleasant in itself (I feel a pleasant desire)....' (p 855)."

2. "Extrinsic rewards function as motivational magnets that elicit 'wanting', but not 'liking' reactions once they have been acquired ."

Isn't this characteristic of (unnaturally) excessive levels of synaptic dopamine as occurs in addiction, but not of ordinary experiences?

3. Last sentence in lead: The final lead sentence, "Rewards are generally considered more desirable than punishment in modifying behavior." is problematic. 4. Express some caution about application of animal research to humans."Some of the stimuli and events that are pleasurable in humans may not even evoke pleasure in animals but act instead through innate mechanisms. We simply do not know. (Schultz, p 855)""Whether the pleasure circuit—and in particular, the ventral pallidum—works the same way in humans is unclear. Not many people come to the clinic with discrete damage to these structures without injuries in surrounding areas. Thus, it is difficult to assess whether the ventral pallidum and other components in the circuit are essential to the sensation of pleasure in humans.<p style='line-height:100%;'>     — Kringelbach, M.L. & Berridge, K.C. The joyful mind. Scientific American, 307(2), 40-45 (p 45), August 2012." — βox73(৳alk) 02:27, 11 October 2016 (UTC)
 * The cited ref never mentions rewards (positive reinforcement); it simply says negative punishment is more desirable than positive punishment.
 * What is the significance of being "more desirable" in this article? More desirable suggests more effective in modifying behavior, which is clearly not clear.

Schultz might say, as a higher ordered conditioned reward, money may evoke pleasure. (p 864).

Is this somewhat redundant? — βox73(৳alk) 04:20, 18 September 2016 (UTC)
 * "Reward is the attractive and motivational property of a stimulus that induces appetitive behavior – also known as approach behavior – and consummatory behavior ."
 * "In its description of a rewarding stimulus (i.e., "a reward"), a review on reward neuroscience noted, "any stimulus, object, event, activity, or situation that has the potential to make us approach and consume it is by definition a reward."

Or in the words of Jackson Browne, "I'm going to be a happy idiot / And struggle for the legal tender..." (The Pretender)

In The Social Brain, Michael Gazzaniga describes intrinsic motivation, "This is the motivation that develops as the result of engaging in behavior perceived to be more or less freely willed."

Next
Depending on the associated mechanisms involved, highly pleasurable activity can produce a sedated euphoria (e.g., marijuana) or alternatively a highly excitatory euphoria (e.g., orgasm). In each case, the resultant euphorias are qualitatively similar even though one is associated with a high level of relaxation and the other with a high level of excitement.

A similar situation applies with the use of heroin and cocaine, both of which when injected intravenously produce an immediate state of euphoria. However, the feeling associated with heroin is characterized by extreme relaxation whereas that with cocaine is characterized by extreme stimulation. Yet paradoxically, both types of addicts describe the "rush" of either heroin or cocaine injection as being similar to the feeling of an orgasm.

Schultz neglects two factors: imagination and defense.

As Schultz alludes, his definition of primary reward (food/water/sex/parenting) differs from unconditioned reward, part of the common definition. The effect of psychoactive drugs has been referred to as a primary reward. Several sources are needed and should guide a fair solution.

Whereas extrinsic rewards such as food and liquids are immediately beneficial, intrinsic rewards are more likely to contribute to fitness only later.

Think about what winning a fortune would do for most people's stress levels, altruism and social status. These are intrinsic.

LASTLY. In modern philosophy, euphoria is discussed as an "objectless emotion". I didn't address this topic but an editor familiar with philosophy might be invited to contribute in this regard.

Despite the skimpy pleasure article there is enough material and significance to justify a euphoria article. — Box73 (talk) 10:46, 21 July 2016 (UTC)

"Morphine produces a syndrome characterized by analgesia, relaxed euphoria, sedation, a sense of tranquility, reduced apprehension and concern, respiratory depression, suppression of the cough reﬂex, and pupillary constriction....   Euphoria. Morphine produces a pleasant euphoric state, which includes a strong feeling of contentment, well-being, and lack of concern. This effect is part of the affective, or reinforcing, response to the drug.<p style='line-height:100%;'>      —  Julien, Robert M.; Advokat, Claire D.; Comaty, Joseph E. (2010-10-08). Primer of Drug Action. Macmillan.  p 332-33."

The term euphoria is used to indicate a change in mood characterized by joy, exuberance and happiness connected to a successful and rewarding event, rarely associated with psychomotor excitement. Euphoria is considered a pathological condition when the emotional resonance is disproportionate to the real situation; it differs from mania as described in patients with bipolar disorders, because the mood change is stable and patients do not exhibit thought acceleration or the incessant impulse to think up new ideas and perform new activities. -- [https://books.google.com/books?id=vLZfWtLxnucC&pg=PA121 Nocentini, Ugo; Caltagirone, Carlo; Tedeschi, Gioacchino (2012). Neuropsychiatric Dysfunction in Multiple Sclerosis. Springer Science & Business Media.] ISBN 9788847026766.

"Form of pleasure" may be problematic. Euphoria is reasonably a form of pleasure. (This article claims "joy is a somewhat intense form of pleasure," based on previous sources.) But "form of pleasure" isn't some accepted technical classification found in published sources. Schultz's "forms of pleasure" isn't meant to distinguish euphoria per se, but speaks about particular modes of stimuli: water, food, money, runner's high, mating, drugs, parental infant affects. (Why didn't he just say euphoria? Is runner's high a different form of pleasure?)

Cut or increase "a form of pleasure". If this innocently meant a pleasurable state, it would be fine. But this is a misrepresentation of Schultz. He is not referring to euphoria but to modes of pleasure, one of which he characterizes with euphoria. If he is qualifying euphoria per se, why would he separately list runner's high, which is also euphoric? Where else does "form of pleasure" appear in the literature? (This dated article claims "joy is a somewhat intense form of pleasure," based on previous sources.) If necessary it would be better to call euphoria "forms of pleasure", as Panksepp refers to, "the diverse forms of affective distress and euphoria that can arise from the basic emotional circuits of all mammalian brains." Neuroscience defines pleasure, and may describe some pleasures which are euphoric, but it borrows the term euphoria. How does a neuroscientist establish that the intense pleasure of orgasms are not euphoric? Neuroscience must convene a new definition.

Despite decoticate mammals retaining pleasure mechanisms, there are cognitive inputs to some human euphoria.

Bearn speaks of intense excitement, which generally disqualifies heroin and cannabis.

Neuroscience defines pleasure, and may describe some pleasures which are euphoric, but currently it borrows the term euphoria. (On what basis does a neuroscientist establish that the intense pleasure of orgasms are not euphoric?)

Other authors use forms of pleasure referring to stimuli. What others say euphoria is a form of pleasure? or define form of pleasure? or list other named affects?

Modify to forms of pleasure. Schultz's "forms of pleasure" isn't meant to distinguish euphoria, but the particular modes of stimuli: water, food, money, runner's high, mating, drugs, parental infant affects. Several of these stimuli can induce euphoria, and substances may induce different euphorias.

A new citation for "a form of pleasure". Euphoria is reasonably a form of pleasure. However Schultz's "forms of pleasure" isn't meant to distinguish euphoria, but the stimuli: water, food, money, runner's high, mating, drugs, parent to baby affects. Many or all of these stimuli can induce euphoria. Even food can be euphoric, if one is starving or the food highly palatable.

Affective neuroscientists have proposed concepts based on research, but the field hasn't yet defined euphoria (as it has redefined addiction). AN is clarifying final mechanisms and measuring pleasure. Humans are especially social and cognitive subjective cognition (interpretation of stimuli) can play a role in some human euphoria.

MEDRS should be applied with common sense. Euphoria precedes MedSci use; there is a paucity of MEDRS material about euphoria per se, and MEDRS euphoria definitions vary. Reasonable exceptions should be carefully considered.

Potential concepts in need of clear support:
 * Euphoria is exclusive of negative affect/dysphoria. Several sources say this but manic mixed states and some DBS studies contradict it.
 * The more intense the euphoria, the more similar to others. This approaches what Berridge says about the full set of pleasure systems activated.
 * The more intense the euphoria, the shorter the duration. This seems apparent but I can't find it explicitly stated.

Depending on what excitement means (aroused eagerness), one could argue the same for cannabis: "Although subjective reports of the cannabis experience vary greatly, it typically begins with a feeling of dizziness or lightheadedness followed by a relaxed calm and a feeling of being somewhat “disconnected.” There is a quickening of the sense of humor, described by some as a fatuous euphoria; often there is silly giggling. Awareness of the senses and of music may be increased. Appetite increases, and time seems to pass quickly. Eventually, the user becomes drowsy and experiences decreased attention and difficulty maintaining a coherent conversation. Slowed reaction time and decreased psychomotor activity may also occur. The user may drift into daydreams and eventually fall asleep.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    —  Rella JG. Recreational cannabis use: pleasures and pitfalls. Cleve Clin J Med. 2015 Nov;82(11):765-72. Review."

It might be that excitement is a necessary quality of reality based euphoria. Because of the paucity of material regarding euphoria

MEDRS requirements should not limit this article
 * There is a paucity of material specific to euphoria.
 * Different sources use the term differently.
 * Some sources use other terms synonymous to euphoria, or its definition.
 * Consideration of other reasonable sources will supplement paucity of material.
 * The term is not derived through research
 * The term spans beyond neuroscience and medicine.
 * Peer review doesn't effect use of the term or synonyms
 * Research on drug addiction or neuroscience is not research on euphoria

Definitions of euphoria span from seconds to months.

Because neuroscience, affective or generally, hasn't defined euphoria, we can't base it entirely on AN.

I believe we should be guided but neuroscience and MEDRS but not limited by it. (But I certainly don't want to blend disparate states as in aura (symptom).)

Euphoria is considered an uncountable noun. Occasional use of the plural "euphorias" assumes or implies "[kinds of] euphoria". (cf, pleasure/pleasures)

Affective neuroscience

Is euphoria necessarily mindless, without meaning or context?

If the feeling of intense pleasure (one experiences from say iv heroin or after running) occurs contextually, with meaning (such as winning a cruise) is that euphoria?

Is being "inappropriate to real events" "Your question was: What qualitatively distinguishes euphoria from pleasure in general?"Euphoria is generally: Excptions exist but never to all. (Berridge: full set of pleasure systems activated)
 * intense
 * out of context (or the context is out of ordinary context)
 * exclusive (mixed manic states is an exception) I'm trying to hash this out.
 * the more intense the euphoria, the more similar it becomes to other euphorias.
 * the more intense, the shorter the duration.

Form of pleasure


 * 1) Schultz's "forms of pleasure" isn't mean to distinguish euphoria, but the stimuli: water, food, money, runner's high, mating, drugs, parent to baby affects.
 * 2) Would dysphoria be a form of displeasure? love a form of pleasure?
 * 3) Are all euphorias the same? Amphetamine euphoria is qualitatively different from opioid euphoria. (Berridge contemplated this. Moreover research published in 2013, "Effects of amphetamine on the human brain opioid system – a positron emission tomography study" found that an i.v. dose of dextroamphetamine produces euphoria without causing any acute opioid release in healthy human subjects.)

Intensity

Schultz revisited

"However, little is known about the experience, and how may relate to variability in medial orbitofrontal cortex structure. <p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Carlson JM, Cha J, Fekete T, Greenberg T, Mujica-Parodi LR. 'Left medial orbitofrontal cortex volume correlates with skydive-elicited euphoric experience.' Brain Struct Funct. 2015 Nov 7."

Carlson equates euphoria with extreme joy (hence the singular "this state"). Schultz says, "...many enments differ by more than a few degrees." Euphoria can occur with various stimuli, various forms of pleasure. Euphoria is largely a matter of intense, extreme, amplified, exaggerated, dense pleasure.

"Eating, drinking, sexual activity, and parenting invoke pleasure, an emotion that promotes repetition of these behaviors, are essential for survival. Euphoria, a feeling or state of, is, aspired to one's essential biological needs that are satisfied.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Bearn J, O'Brien M. 'Addicted to Euphoria: The History, Clinical Presentation, and Management of Party Drug Misuse.' Int Rev Neurobiol. 2015;120:205-33."

"Euphoria - of physical and emotional well-being, usually of psychological origin. Also seen in organic mental disorders and in toxic and drug-induced states. See also bipolar disorders<p style='line-height:100%;'>     — Key DSM-IV Mental Status Exam Phrases"

"I believe moods can also be brought about by highly dense emotional experiences. Dense anger can result in an irritable mood, just as .<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Paul Ekman, Emotions Revealed, p 50.  (Using this source here based on Ekman's qualifications.)"

"This article surveys recent findings regarding brain mechanisms of hedonic ‘liking’, such as the existence of cubic-millimeter hedonic hotspots in nucleus accumbens and ventral pallidum for opioid .<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Kent C. Berridge. '‘Liking’ and ‘wanting’ food rewards: Brain substrates and roles in eating disorders' Physiol Behav. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2010 July 14."

"In short, dopamine appears unable to cause changes in basic ‘liking’ reactions to sucrose. It stands in contrast to the hedonic hot spots described above, which use opioid, cannabinoid, and benzodiazepine signals to powerfully of natural sensory pleasures.<p style='line-height:100%;'>     —  Peciña S, Smith KS, Berridge KC. 'Hedonic hot spots in the brain.' Neuroscientist. 2006 Dec;12(6):500-11."The more intense the euphoria, the more similar it becomes to others, approaches what Berridge says about the full set of pleasure systems activated. Also alludes to orgasm as euphoric."...Depending on the associated mechanisms involved, highly pleasurable activity can produce a sedated euphoria (e.g., marijuana) or alternatively a highly excitatory euphoria (e. g., orgasm). In each case, the resultant euphorias are qualitatively similar even though one is associated with a high level of relaxation and the other with a high level of excitement.   A similar situation applies with the use of heroin and cocaine, both of which when injected intravenously produce an immediate state of euphoria. However, the feeling associated with heroin is characterized by extreme relaxation whereas that with cocaine is characterized by extreme stimulation. Yet paradoxically, both types of addicts describe the “rush” of either heroin or cocaine injection as being similar to the feeling of an orgasm. <p style='line-height:100%;'>      — Kissin, Benjamin (2013). Conscious and Unconscious Programs in the Brain. Boston, MA: Springer. ISBN 9781461292876. p 333" "Out of context""The more intense the euphoria, the more similar it becomes to others, approaches what Berridge says about the full set of pleasure systems activated."

--
 * 1) It can be induced by a drug or DBS. It is out of context, without objective cause.
 * 2) It can be induced by an extraordinary event. It is out of ordinary context.
 * 3) It can be induced by an evolved (high value) behavior. Mate. Sex. Children.
 * 4) It can be induced by many proximate pleasant events. "The best day of my life."
 * 5) It can be induced by relief of an intense threat. Corollary to #2, this is also an extraordinary event, out of ordinary context.
 * 6) It can be induced socially. Like a comic, performer or speaker feels, receiving a highly positive reaction from an audience.
 * 1) It is out of context, without apparent cause. (most common MedSci definition)
 * 2) It is out of ordinary context,
 * 3) caused by an extraordinary event
 * 4) caused by relief of an intense threat
 * 5) caused by many proximate positive events
 * 6) To induce an evolved (high value) behavior. Mate. Sex. Children.
 * 7) It is socially induced or amplified


 * 1) 1 Out of context e.g., "inappropriate to real events"

It is clearly true for opioids, amphetamines, THC etc. For DBS..."For contacts at which smiles and laughter were observed, a positive correlation between voltage and mood was found: The higher the voltage, the stronger was the mood elevation. which might be mediated by a different brain network (Haq et al. 2011). (Haq et al. 2011).      — Synofzik M, Schlaepfer TE, Fins JJ. 'How Happy Is Too Happy? Euphoria, Neuroethics, and Deep Brain Stimulation of the Nucleus Accumbens' AJOB Neuroscience Vol. 3, Iss. 1, 2012""This refers to...""The NAc region appears more closely tied to euphoria rather than context-dependent mirth. Though previous reports have divided induced laughter into mirthful and mirthless (Wild et al., 2003), we would distinguish the euphoria experienced by patients in our series from reports of context-dependent evoked laughter.<p style='line-height:100%;'>     — Haq IU, Foote KD, Goodman WG, Wu SS, Sudhyadhom A, Ricciuti N, Siddiqui MS, Bowers D, Jacobson CE, Ward H, Okun MS. 'Smile and laughter induction and intraoperative predictors of response to deep brain stimulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder'. Neuroimage. 2011 Jan;54 Suppl 1:S247-55."

Out of context isn't necessary for euphoria. If the same NAc DBS patient actually won a cruise, and asked how he felt, said, "happy ... like I did when my DBS was adjusted," would that be euphoria? (Or a heroin user, say, "happy ... like the first time I shot heroin," etc.?)

"Here, we propose that there also exists an (IWS) that is triggered by success and and increased self-confidence. It motivates efforts to challenge, and promotes reconciliation.<p style='line-height:100%;'>      — Sloman L, Sturman ED, Price JS. Winning and losing: an evolutionary approach to mood disorders and their therapy. Can J Psychiatry. 2011 Jun;56(6):324-32. Review.  There is a system measuring the pleasure of a thing (euphoria), a system learning the usefulness of repeating actions (reinforcement), and a system recognizing change (disappointment). In parallel, there are the dysphoria, aversion, and relief systems.<p style='line-height:100%;'>      — A. David Redish, The Mind within the Brain, p 34  (Using this source here because Redish is a professor of Neuroscience at U Minnesota.)" A cognitive influence may exist: "A severe abdominal pain can be a source of anxiety, which will likely elicit a stress-response. However, if the pain indicates that a drug is effectively killing cells of a liver tumor, this same pain might elicit euphoria. Thus, the interpretation of an external stressor can influence the physiological response to it.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Sapolsky RM. 'Social Status and Health in Humans and Other Animals' Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2004.33:393-418.  Here, we propose that there also exists an . It motivates efforts to challenge, and promotes reconciliation.<p style='line-height:100%;'>      — Sloman L, Sturman ED, Price JS. Winning and losing: an evolutionary approach to mood disorders and their therapy. Can J Psychiatry. 2011 Jun;56(6):324-32. Review.  As psychologists use the term [emotion],, a brief startle at an unexpected noise, unrelenting profound grief, the fleeting pleasant sensations from a warm breeze, cardiovascular changes in response to viewing a film, the stalking and murder of an innocent victim, lifelong love of an offspring, feeling chipper for no known reason, and interest in a news bulletin.<p style='line-height:100%;'>      — Russell JA, Barrett LF. Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called emotion: dissecting the elephant. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1999 May;76(5):805-19. [p 805] Review. Nonetheless, and dysphoria of maintaining self control during settlement and disclosure phases (Goffman 1961) imply varying degrees of interest and excitement. <p style='line-height:100%;'>     — Saunders, D. M., & Turner, D. E. (1987). Gambling and leisure: The case of racing. Leisure studies, 6(3), 281-299. What happens now to our level of happiness after hitting the jackpot? First, the moment of winning is an occurrence which causes a quite long-lasting state of happiness in the sense of a top experience.... However, does not hold forever.<p style='line-height:100%;'>      —  Lutter, M. (2007). Book Review: Winning a lottery brings no happiness!. Journal of Happiness Studies, 8(1), 155-160. (p 156)"

The euphoria of winning can also be collective such as emotional investment in a sports team or even financial investment.

"People love to win. It brings them a sense of joy and accomplishment that is magical and euphoric.... As an avid sports fan, I was stricken with awe at the celebrations and euphoria surrounding teams winning championships.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    —  Keene, J. (2011). Who's Really Winning? An in-depth look at intercollegiate athletics and their impact on undergraduate education. pp 2, 27"

"But independent of all these beneficial characteristics that sports spectatorship may have in comparison to active sports participation, the phenomena in sportsfanship should be of interest in its own right.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Zillmann, D., Bryant, J., & Sapolsky, B. S. (1989). Enjoyment from sports spectatorship. Sports, games, and play: Social and psychological viewpoints, 2, 241-278. [p 254]"

"Watching European football competitions had a positive impact in the city of Dijon with a decrease of stroke numbers. European championship is possibly associated with higher television audience and long-lasting euphoria although other factors may be involved.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Aboa-Eboulé C, Béjot Y, Cottenet J, Khellaf M, Jacquin A, Durier J, Rouaud O, Hervieu-Begue M, Osseby GV, Giroud M, Quantin C. The impact of World and European Football Cups on stroke in the population of Dijon, France: a longitudinal study from 1986 to 2006. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2014 Mar;23(3): 229-35."

"Localisation of regions of intense pleasure responses will lead to a better understanding of the reward mechanisms in the brain. Here we present a novel fMRI video paradigm designed to evoke high levels of pleasure in a specific test group and to distinguish regions of pleasure from anticipation. It exploits the intense commitment of soccer supporters and thus captures the .<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — McLean, J., Brennan, D., Wyper, D., Condon, B., Hadley, D., & Cavanagh, J. (2009). Localisation of regions of intense pleasure response evoked by soccer goals. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 171(1), 33-43."

It may be additive. Examples include speedball (cocaine + heroin), and autoerotic asphyxia (asphyxia + orgasm).

"Various rationales have been proposed to explain the combined use of cocaine and heroin in humans. These include a reduction in the magnitude of undesired side effects, enhancement in the positive effects of either drug alone, induction of a euphoric feeling, beyond superior positive effects, or independent, non-additive effects even though the drugs are administered concurrently (Kosten et al., 1987; Foltin and Fischman, 1992; Hemby et al., 1996). The hypothesis of an intensified euphoria with speedball parallels preclinical results showing that cocaine and heroin potentiate the reinforcing effects of one another in studies utilizing self-administration (SA) paradigms in non-human primate models (Mattox et al., 1997; Rowlett and Woolverton, 1997; Rowlett et al., 2005). <p style='line-height:100%;'>    —  Pattison, L. P., & Hemby, S. E. (2013). The Dopaminergic Correlates Of Chronic Cocaine, Heroin And Speedball Administration. Functional Alterations in the Dopamine Transporter of Rodents Following Self-Administration of Cocaine, Heroin and Speedball, 1. (p 3)"

"The reported subjective effects following speedball use in humans are enhanced euphoria and decreased aversive side effects of cocaine or heroin alone. <p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Pattison, L. P., McIntosh, S., Sexton, T., Xiao, R., Grigg, A., Childers, S. R., & Hemby, S. E. (2013). Effects Of Cocaine, Heroin And Speedball Self-Administration On Dopamine Transporter Binding Sites. Functional Alterations in the Dopamine Transporter of Rodents Following Self-Administration of Cocaine, Heroin and Speedball, 118. p 120"

"Our findings are consistent with indications of transitions in UK cities from the primary injection of heroin alone towards the simultaneous injection of heroin and crack as a speedball [2,3]. The addition of crack was rationalised as driven by a search for a “better high”. Prior to experimenting with speedball, most had experienced smoking crack alongside their heroin use, and the injection of heroin had become functional or “normal”, no longer providing a “buzz”. Speedball was said to introduce a new “euphoria”, the heights of which had not been experienced before (“Man, it was unbelievable”). <p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Rhodes, T., Briggs, D., Kimber, J., Jones, S., & Holloway, G. (2007). Crack–heroin speedball injection and its implications for vein care: qualitative study. Addiction, 102(11), 1782-1790. (p 6 in isolated pdf)"

"As 2-AG endocannabinoid inhibits the production of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA,63,64 thereby reducing its inhibitory action, it has been hypothesized that compounds that block the release of brain endocannabinoids may increase control on compulsive sexual behaviors. Similarly, intravenous naltrexone, which totally blocks oxytocin release,65 greatly reduces orgasmic pleasure with a concomitant production of b-endorphin, with a resulting failure of post-orgasmic libido decrease. Therefore, it has been hypothesized that compounds that modulate oxytocinergic transmission should perhaps facilitate the reorganization of sexual desire. <p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Marazziti, D., Presta, S., Baroni, S., Silvestri, S., & Dell'Osso, L. (2014). Behavioral addictions: a novel challenge for psychopharmacology. CNS spectrums, 19(06), 486-495."

"Through these two mechanisms, endogenous opioid peptides produce many effects, ranging from preventing diarrhoea to inducing euphoria and pain relief (i.e., analgesia). <p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Sharma, A., Sood, A., Dhiman, N., & Pradesh, U. (2014). Endorphin-Natural Pain Killer. World Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. Volume 3, Issue 3, 341-350. Review Article  p 342""As with their use of alcohol, people use cocaine to change the way they feel. Their objective is to experience the euphoria described as a high. At low doses, this includes feelings of well—being, conﬁdence, creativity, self-esteem, and gregariousness. At high doses, however, cocaine produces an intense euphoria likened to orgasm.<p style='line-height:100%;'>     Smith, Thomas Spence (1995). Strong Interaction. University Of Chicago Press.ISBN 9780226764146."

"Despite the fact that sexual feelings were infrequently identified with rushes, the results best supported an interpretation that the [heroin addict] population was largely inorgasmic without drugs, but found attractive orgasmic pleasure in heroin and cocaine.    — Seecof R, Tennant FS Jr. Subjective perceptions to the intravenous 'rush' of heroin and cocaine in opioid addicts. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 1986;12(1-2):79-87."

The issue of social euphoria

Dictionary definitions of euphoria

qwerty

Exclusive

In manic mixed states and neurological illness euphoria may briefly coexist with negative affects, often when transitioning. However, generally euphoria preempts negative affects. This is true of euphoriants, particularly opioids like heroin, which excludes reality based negative affects and those internally based (depression, OCD). This is analogous to opioids reducing the affective component of pain. In some presentations, this effect (of affect) is emphasized over intensity.

I am exploring stronger, more comprehensive sources now.

Other

One study of emotions vocabulary grouped rapture with euphoria; the two words are highly synonymous.

There is something different about the euphoria associated with lobotomies, MS, etc.

There is a combination of euphoria with disinhibition.

Opioid/cannabinoid euphoria

Stimulant euphoria

Dissociative euphoria

an exaggerated feeling of physical and mental well-being, especially when not justified by external reality.

especially when not justified by external reality.

commonly exaggerated and not necessarily well founded.

sometimes used to mean an abnormally exaggerated feeling of elation.

abnormal sensation of well-being

not consonant with apparent stimuli or events

Exclusive

Euphoria generally excludes negative affect.

One seeming exception might be mania, particularly mixed states where negative and positive affects coexist.

"Bimodal distribution of scores of manic patients on the Well-Being and Depression Index subscales substantiated earlier findings that euphoric mood is not an essential feature of mania<p style='line-height:100%;'>    —  Bauer MS, Crits-Christoph P, Ball WA, et al. Independent Assessment of Manic and Depressive Symptoms by Self-rating: Scale Characteristics and Implications for the Study of Mania. Arch Gen Psychiatry.1991;48(9):807-812."

"Mania seems to be composed of three core dimensions, i.e. hedonism, dysphoria and activation, and is frequently accompanied by a psychotic and a depressive factor.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    —  González-Pinto, A. et al. Principal components of mania. Journal of Affective Disorders, Volume 76, Issue 1, 95 - 102"

"With increasing voltage a NAc DBS patient had euthymia become euphoria then anxiety."

"First, the patient reported an increasing sensation of being happy and feeling relaxed in linear correlation to an increment in voltage (see Figure 1). With voltage escalation,he sometimes analogized this experience to the feeling of “getting high” or “being on drugs.” The self-reported mood improvement corresponded with overt hedonic behavior and a broadening smile. Second, at higher voltages (≥5 V) these sensations became excessive or “too much.”The patient began to feel “unrealistically good” and to be“overwhelmed” by the sensations of happiness and ease. He became afraid that the positive effects will “tilt over” and that his “anxiety will come back”.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Synofzik, Schlaepfer, Fins, 'How Happy Is Too Happy? Euphoria, Neuroethics, and Deep Brain Stimulation of the Nucleus Accumbens', AJOB Neuroscience (2012) p 31"

"Evidence of pleasure-related analgesia has been reported in various human and animal studies: pain is decreased by pleasant odours, images, pleasurable music, palatable food, and sexual behaviour. In addition, considerable evidence suggests that expectation of treatment effect, which contributes to placebo analgesia, is a type of reward expectation.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Leknes, Siri; Tracey, Irene (2008-04-01). 'A common neurobiology for pain and pleasure'. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 9 (4): 314–320."

Need to resist too quickly accepting current theory. Neuroscience has previously erred in oversimplified explanations (monoamine deficits in depression), little is known about some brain areas (insula) and products (consciousness), contradictory research results (dopamine euphoria exclusive of endogenous opioids), undiscovered neurotransmitters, technical issues (using hedonic taste to judge liking, when amphetamine effects appetitive senses).

otherwise there is no distinction with pleasure and no need for a euphoria article.

Why does the term exist? and why isn't it used synonymously with pleasure?

"EO [endogenous opioids] contributes to maternal euphoria and the inhibition of stress-related HPA reactivity to protect the foetus in the late-gestation and lactation phases. <p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Swain, J. E., Kim, P., & Ho, S. S. (2011). Neuroendocrinology of parental response to baby‐cry. Journal of neuroendocrinology, 23(11), 1036-1041."

"Euphoria refers to a persistent and unrealistic sense of well-being, without the increased mental or motor rate of mania. Although often mentioned in connection with multiple sclerosis (MS), it is unusual and almost always associated with extensive disease and substantial cognitive impairment. <p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Kaplan and Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 9E, (2009) p 411-12."

"dysphoria: Feeling of unpleasantness or discomfort; a mood of general dissatisfaction and restlessness. Occurs in depression and anxiety. elation: Mood consisting of feelings of joy, euphoria, triumph, and intense self-satisfaction or optimism.Occurs in mania when not grounded in reality. elevated mood: Air of confidence and enjoyment; a mood more cheerful than normal but not necessarily pathological.

euthymia: Normal range of mood, implying absence of depressed or elevated mood.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Kaplan and Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 9E, (2009) p 411-12. p 923" "Elated moods include euphoria, elation, exaltation, and ecstasy. They are marked by feelings of well-being and expansiveness, optimism, capability, pleasure, and grace. Peak experiences and experiences of mystic fusion are often accompanied by feelings of exaltation and ecstasy. Sexual pleasure and some chemically mediated states of altered consciousness may also induce these feelings. Abnormal elated moods are primarily seen as part of manic states and from the effects of certain medications and street drugs. When subtle, as in hypomania, the mood can be ebullient and brimming with self-confidence but with occasional irritability. Other characteristic symptoms of hypomania are increased energy, decreased need for sleep, rapidly flowing thoughts, excessive talking, inflated selfesteem with a demanding nature toward others, and diminished judgment. Mania is a more extreme state in which judgment and sleep are impaired to the point of marked functional disruption.<p style='line-height:100%;'>     — Kaplan and Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 9E, (2009) p 1095"

"To uncover the processes by which cocaine exerts its profound behavioral effects, human subjects have been administered radiolabeled cocaine in neuroimaging studies using positron emission tomography (PET). These studies showed that cocaine rapidly permeates the striatum, then quickly redistributes out of it with a half-life of about 20 minutes. The time course of self-reported “high” closely follows this pattern of rapid uptake and clearance. Furthermore, decreased density of type 2 dopamine (D2) receptors in nonaddicted subjects is associated with more pleasant subjective reactions to cocaine administration, whereas high levels of D2 receptors are related to aversive responses. This is notable, given that chronic stimulant users demonstrate decreased D2 receptor density in PET studies.<p style='line-height:100%;'>     — Kaplan and Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 9E, (2009) p 1321"

"Cocaine-induced euphoria is more strongly correlated with rate of increase in serum levels than with absolute amount of cocaine ingested.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Kaplan and Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 9E, (2009) p 1321"

"To merely consider hallucinogens as mood elevators, as is sometimes the case with psychostimulants, or to view hallucinogens as drugs that produce euphoria in the simple sense of that term is an inaccurate characterization of the range of effects on humans.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Kaplan and Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 9E, (2009) p 1334-35"

"Tumors of the ventral right frontal lobe are often associated with euphoria and secondary hypomania or mania, especially in patients with family histories of mood disorders.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Kaplan and Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 9E, (2009) p 436"

"Similarly, although the literature has suggested a tendency for left sided tumors to cause dysphoria and depression and for right-sided tumors to cause euphoria and symptom denial and neglect, the association between laterality and behavioral symptomatology is by no means consistent. An important issue in understanding the relationship between anatomical localization of tumors and associated psychopathology is that much of the available literature that addresses this issue is old and predates the application ofmore recent psychiatric and neuropsychiatric diagnostic classification schema, making many of the clinical inferences from this literature difficult to interpret in current terms.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    —  Kaplan and Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 9E, (2009) p 440"

"In comparison to Alzheimer’s disease, apathy, disinhibition, euphoria, and aberrant behaviors are more common in FTD, but delusions, hallucinations, depression, anxiety, agitation, and irritability seem to occur at comparable rates.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Kaplan and Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 9E, (2009) p 492"

"Psychological stress associated with immigration has been examined in a number of ethnic groups. The greatest stress appears to become manifest during the first 3 years after arrival in the United States, as noted in studies of Hispanic immigrants and immigrants from the former Soviet Union., followed by increased demoralization in the second year, and a gradual return to well-being beginning in the third year after immigration. Similar findings have been noted for Cuban, Eastern European, and Chinese immigrants to North America.<p style='line-height:100%;'>    — Kaplan and Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 9E, (2009) p 748"

Sense of satisfaction / indifference

Omit presently.

For affective neuroscience to

Affective neuroscience may uncover mechanisms of

Affective neuroscience can uncover mechanisms of pleasure, some which are euphoria. The danger is, AN centering euphoria on their theory.

It isn't appropriate to select a particular euphoria definition used by any neuroscientist (or other) as the true definition, to the exclusion of others even in that field.

Drugs and mania may produce euphoria by different mechanisms. Both are true The first camp can't lay claim to the word and disqualify the other. Consider aura, used to describe events which precede migraine or a seizure. They are distinct.

Further, euphoria is a subjective experience.

—- "The foremost emotion evoked by rewards is pleasure. We enjoy having a good meal, watching an interesting movie, or meeting a lovely person. Pleasure constitutes a transient response that may lead to the longer lasting state of happiness. There are different degrees and forms of pleasure. Water is pleasant for a thirsty person, and food for a hungry one. The rewarding effects of taste are based on the pleasure it evokes. Winning in a big lottery is even more pleasant. But many enjoyments differ by more than a few degrees. The feeling of high that is experienced by sports people during running or swimming, the lust evoked by encountering a ready mating partner, a sexual orgasm, the euphoria reported by drug users, and the parental affection to babies constitute different forms (qualities) rather than degrees of pleasure (quantities).    — Schultz W. Neuronal Reward and Decision Signals: From Theories to Data. Physiol Rev. 2015 Jul;95(3):853-951."

His 'forms of pleasure' isn't referring to euphoria but the contexts: water, food, money, runner's high, mating, drugs, new parents—the different stimuli. Considering drugs, stimulant euphoria and opioid euphoria are qualitatively different—different forms of pleasure. Euphoria also seems defined by intensity: "The rewarding effects of taste are based on the pleasure it evokes. Winning in a big lottery is even more pleasant. But many enjoyments differ by more than a few degrees." This is about intensity. The taste of a favorite food is delightful. Winning is euphoric.

Shultz is addressing pleasures, not defining euphoria, just using the word.

"However, little is known about the experience of euphoria, or extreme joy, and how this state may relate to variability in medial orbitofrontal cortex structure.    — Carlson JM, Cha J, Fekete T, Greenberg T, Mujica-Parodi LR. Left medial orbitofrontal cortex volume correlates with skydive-elicited euphoric experience. Brain Struct Funct. 2015 Nov 7." This is not a review but we are not interested in the findings. It equates euphoria with extreme joy. And that agrees with Schultz: "But many en joy ments differ by more than a few degrees."

"Eating, drinking, sexual activity, and parenting invoke pleasure, an emotion that promotes repetition of these behaviors, are essential for survival. Euphoria, a feeling or state of intense excitement and happiness, is an amplification of pleasure, aspired to one's essential biological needs that are satisfied.    — Bearn J, O'Brien M. 'Addicted to Euphoria': The History, Clinical Presentation, and Management of Party Drug Misuse. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2015;120:205-33." This is a definition. The dictionary definition, then "amplification of pleasure" and "essential biological needs satisfied". It is from the vantage of addictive drugs.

"Euphoria - An exaggerated feeling of physical and emotional well-being, usually of psychological origin. Also seen in organic mental disorders and in toxic and drug-induced states. See also bipolar disorders    — Key DSM-IV Mental Status Exam Phrases"

What are the qualities of euphoria that distinguish it from pleasure generally?

1., 2. and 3. are the same.
 * 1) Intensity. (Quantity is one quality.) Novel. Drugs: Rapid. More rapid = more intense = more euphoria.
 * 2) Objectless. Euphoria is called an objectless emotion. It is without context or meaning. A NAc DBS patient receiving a higher voltage during adjustment, described how he felt, "happy ... like I won a cruise." "objectless emotion" is a term used in philosophy.
 * 3) If not objectless, then it follows some extraordinarily positive event. Actually won a cruise, a professional award, saved from near death.
 * 4) Resolved: Either euphoria is without context or the context is out of context. The cause is either artificial or unusual.
 * 5) Cinsider existing affective state + euphoric stimulus. Does a euphoric stimulus produce a the same final state added to dysphoria (negative) as euthymia (neutral or mildly positive)? In NAc DBS, the (lower voltage) antidepressant effect is mild but continuous, while (higher voltage) the euphoric effect is high but transient (thus far). Does this represent tachyphylaxis? Does this represent tonic vs phasic transmission? After the euphoria cedes at higher voltage, would an antidepressant effect remain? Would a higher voltage, applied periodically (such as a square waveform) oscillating, maintain euphoria?
 * 6) Sex and love/infatuation might be an exception. Evolutionary?
 * 7) Resists/excludes negative emotions/moods. This is true by definition and in many papers. Yet in mania, euphoria and irritability overlap, and this has created contraversy in psychiatry.
 * 8) Hijacks wanting. Wanting is gravity and euphoria is weightlessness. It occurs when the rollercoaster comes over

Euphoria is out pleasure out of context. It is considered an "objectless emotion" or without meaning. The issue is the boundary between very happy and euphoric.
 * 1) It can be induced by an opioid or DBS. It is without context.
 * 2) It can be induced by an extraordinary event. It is outside ordinary context.
 * 3) It can be induced by an evolved behavior. Mate. Sex. Children. (all love related)
 * 4) It can be induced by many proximate pleasant events.

Induced euphoria

An opioid will induce euphoria independent of cause

An opioid will induce euphoria amplifying a cause

No event/cause     Opioid will induce euphoria

Ordinary cause      Opioid will amplify normal pleasure to euphoria

Extraordinary cause     No opioid

Euphoria can be caused entirely by opioids, DA stimulants, NAc DBS.

Euphoria can be increased by other drugs, higher voltage

The key is context.

Feel like I won something great

I won something great

Qualities of euphoria: Basically, euphoria is intense, exclusive, out of context and objectless.

Intensity is obvious. Ekman refers to euphoria as dense pleasure.

Exclusive. One can't be euphoric and dysphoric. However manic euphoria

Different neuroscientists apply the term differently, usually to describe but not delimit. Statements like "euphoria is ____" or "euphoria represents ____" tend to be local and serve the researcher's direction of study. One may compare euphoria of drugs to food, while another then compares euphoria of infatuational love to drugs. But if orgasmic euphoria doesn't fit the model of drug euphoria, that doesn't disqualify the former. Neurology uses "aura" to describe preludes to seizures and to migraines, two distinct processes.

This is difficult. The definition of euphoria is fuzzy. On a general level the term is used metaphorically. Even in brain and behavioral science the term serves each author's purpose. Add to this fuzziness, that in lab animals it is difficult to distinguish euphoria from pleasure.

Synonyms of euphoria (Berridge): high, sensory pleasure, affective reaction, hedonistic value

Money can be euphoric.

The dramatic DBS-induced euphoria was expressed by one patient as feeling “happy. . . like I won a cruise”

Logically, actually winning a cruise would induce euphoria.

Winning a large amount of money would induce euphoria.

For contacts at which smiles and laughter were observed, a positive correlation between voltage and mood was found: The higher the voltage, the stronger was the mood elevation. which might be mediated by a different brain network (Haq et al. 2011). (Haq et al. 2011).

—Synofzik, Schlaepfer, Fins, "How Happy Is Too Happy? Euphoria, Neuroethics, and Deep Brain Stimulation of the Nucleus Accumbens", AJOB Neuroscience (2012) p 31

I believe. Dense anger can result in an irritable mood, just as

—Paul Ekman, Emotions Revealed, p 50.

A disdainful mood involved the emotions of disgust and contempt, a euphoric or high mood involves excitement and pleasure, an apprehensive mood involves fear.

—Paul Ekman, Emotions Revealed, p 50.

The terms euphoria and dysphoria represent calculations in the brain of how good or bad something is.

—A. David Redish, The Mind within the Brain, p 23-24

Robert Heath and his colleagues implanted several stimulating electrodes into the brain of a patient (for the treatment of epilepsy), and then offered the patient different buttons to stimulate each of the electrodes. On stimulation from pressing one button, the patient reported. On stimulation from the second button, the patient reported mild discomfort. However, the patient continued pressing the second button over and over again, much more than the ﬁrst. Euphoria and reinforcement are different.

—A. David Redish, The Mind within the Brain, p 24

Current work suggests that activation of the μ-opioid receptors signals euphoria, and activation of the κ-opioid receptors signals dysphoria. The functionality of the δ-opioid receptors is less clear but seems to be involved in analgesia ..., the relief of anxiety, and the induction of craving. Chemicals that stimulate μ-opioid receptors ... are generally rewarding, reinforcing, and euphorigenic.

—A. David Redish, The Mind within the Brain, p 25-6

, then this is a great example of the importance of recognizing our physical nature. . This also brings up a concept we will return to again and again in this book—the idea of a vulnerability or failure mode. We did not evolve μ-opioid receptors to take heroin; we evolved μ-opioid receptors so that we could recognize things in our lives that have value and thus give us pleasure. But Heroin accesses a potential failure mode of our brains— At least, it does so until the body gets used to it and dials down the μ-opioid receptor, leading to the user needing to take more and more heroin to achieve the same euphoria, until eventually even massive doses of heroin don’t produce euphoria anymore, they just relieve the persistent dysphoria left behind.

—A. David Redish, The Mind within the Brain, p 26

, while the lack of delivery of an expected reward leads to disappointment. Similarly, providing a negative thing (a punishment, leading to dysphoria) produces aversion, while the lack of delivery of an expected punishment leads to relief.

—A. David Redish, The Mind within the Brain, p 32

There is a system measuring, a system learning the usefulness of repeating actions (reinforcement), and a system recognizing change (disappointment). In parallel, there are the dysphoria, aversion, and relief systems.

—A. David Redish, The Mind within the Brain, p 34

In short, dopamine appears unable to cause changes in basic ‘liking’ reactions to sucrose. It stands in contrast to the hedonic hot spots described above, which use opioid, cannabinoid, and benzodiazepine signals to powerfully amplify the hedonic impact of natural sensory pleasures.

—Hedonic Hot Spots in the Brain

Wanting

Liking

Learning

Out of context

For contacts at which smiles and laughter were observed, a positive correlation between voltage and mood was found: The higher the voltage, the stronger was the mood elevation. which might be mediated by a different brain network (Haq et al. 2011). (Haq et al. 2011). — Synofzik M, Schlaepfer TE, Fins JJ. "How Happy Is Too Happy? Euphoria, Neuroethics, and Deep Brain Stimulation of the Nucleus Accumbens" AJOB Neuroscience Vol. 3, Iss. 1, 2012
 * 1) It can be induced by an opioid or DBS. It is without context, without subjective cause.
 * 2) It can be induced by an extraordinary event. It is outside ordinary context.
 * 3) It can be induced by an evolved behavior. Mate. Sex. Children.
 * 4) It can be induced by many proximate pleasant events.

There is no reason that context driven mirth—actually winning a cruise—is not euphoria.

There is a system measuring the pleasure of a thing (euphoria), a system learning the usefulness of repeating actions (reinforcement), and a system recognizing change (disappointment). In parallel, there are the dysphoria, aversion, and relief systems. — A. David Redish, The Mind within the Brain, p 34

“Euphoria AE” = Euphoric mood, elevated mood, feeling drunk

For affective neuroscience to

Affective neuroscience may uncover mechanisms of

Affective neuroscience can uncover mechanisms of pleasure, some which are euphoria. The danger is, AN centering euphoria on their theory.

It isn't appropriate to select a particular euphoria definition used by any neuroscientist (or other) as the true definition, to the exclusion of others even in that field.

Drugs and mania may produce euphoria by different mechanisms. Both are true The first camp can't lay claim to the word and disqualify the other. Consider aura, used to describe events which precede migraine or a seizure. They are distinct.

Further, euphoria is a subjective experience. ——--- "The foremost emotion evoked by rewards is pleasure. We enjoy having a good meal, watching an interesting movie, or meeting a lovely person. Pleasure constitutes a transient response that may lead to the longer lasting state of happiness. There are different degrees and forms of pleasure. Water is pleasant for a thirsty person, and food for a hungry one. The rewarding effects of taste are based on the pleasure it evokes. Winning in a big lottery is even more pleasant. But many enjoyments differ by more than a few degrees. The feeling of high that is experienced by sports people during running or swimming, the lust evoked by encountering a ready mating partner, a sexual orgasm, the euphoria reported by drug users, and the parental affection to babies constitute different forms (qualities) rather than degrees of pleasure (quantities).    — Schultz W. Neuronal Reward and Decision Signals: From Theories to Data. Physiol Rev. 2015 Jul;95(3):853-951."

His 'forms of pleasure' isn't referring to euphoria but the contexts: water, food, money, runner's high, mating, drugs, new parents—the different stimuli. Considering drugs, stimulant euphoria and opioid euphoria are qualitatively different—different forms of pleasure. Euphoria also seems defined by intensity: "The rewarding effects of taste are based on the pleasure it evokes. Winning in a big lottery is even more pleasant. But many enjoyments differ by more than a few degrees." This is about intensity. The taste of a favorite food is delightful. Winning is euphoric.

Shultz is addressing pleasures, not defining euphoria, just using the word.

"However, little is known about the experience of euphoria, or extreme joy, and how this state may relate to variability in medial orbitofrontal cortex structure.    — Carlson JM, Cha J, Fekete T, Greenberg T, Mujica-Parodi LR. Left medial orbitofrontal cortex volume correlates with skydive-elicited euphoric experience. Brain Struct Funct. 2015 Nov 7." This is not a review but we are not interested in the findings. It equates euphoria with extreme joy. And that agrees with Schultz: "But many en joy ments differ by more than a few degrees."

"Eating, drinking, sexual activity, and parenting invoke pleasure, an emotion that promotes repetition of these behaviors, are essential for survival. Euphoria, a feeling or state of intense excitement and happiness, is an amplification of pleasure, aspired to one's essential biological needs that are satisfied.    — Bearn J, O'Brien M. 'Addicted to Euphoria': The History, Clinical Presentation, and Management of Party Drug Misuse. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2015;120:205-33." This is a definition. The dictionary definition, then "amplification of pleasure" and "essential biological needs satisfied". It is from the vantage of addictive drugs.

"Euphoria - An exaggerated feeling of physical and emotional well-being, usually of psychological origin. Also seen in organic mental disorders and in toxic and drug-induced states. See also bipolar disorders    — Key DSM-IV Mental Status Exam Phrases"

What are the qualities of euphoria that distinguish it from pleasure generally?

1., 2. and 3. are the same.
 * 1) Intensity. (Quantity is one quality.) Novel. Drugs: Rapid. More rapid = more intense = more euphoria.
 * 2) Objectless. Euphoria is called an objectless emotion. It is without context or meaning. A NAc DBS patient receiving a higher voltage during adjustment, described how he felt, "happy ... like I won a cruise." "objectless emotion" is a term used in philosophy.
 * 3) If not objectless, then it follows some extraordinarily positive event. Actually won a cruise, a professional award, saved from near death.
 * 4) Resolved: Either euphoria is without context or the context is out of context. The cause is either artificial or unusual.
 * 5) Cinsider existing affective state + euphoric stimulus. Does a euphoric stimulus produce a the same final state added to dysphoria (negative) as euthymia (neutral or mildly positive)? In NAc DBS, the (lower voltage) antidepressant effect is mild but continuous, while (higher voltage) the euphoric effect is high but transient (thus far). Does this represent tachyphylaxis? Does this represent tonic vs phasic transmission? After the euphoria cedes at higher voltage, would an antidepressant effect remain? Would a higher voltage, applied periodically (such as a square waveform) oscillating, maintain euphoria?
 * 6) Sex and love/infatuation might be an exception. Evolutionary?
 * 7) Resists/excludes negative emotions/moods. This is true by definition and in many papers. Yet in mania, euphoria and irritability overlap, and this has created contraversy in psychiatry.
 * 8) Hijacks wanting. Wanting is gravity and euphoria is weightlessness. It occurs when the rollercoaster comes over

Euphoria is out pleasure out of context. It is considered an "objectless emotion" or without meaning. The issue is the boundary between very happy and euphoric.
 * 1) It can be induced by an opioid or DBS. It is without context.
 * 2) It can be induced by an extraordinary event. It is outside ordinary context.
 * 3) It can be induced by an evolved behavior. Mate. Sex. Children. (all love related)
 * 4) It can be induced by many proximate pleasant events.

Induced euphoria

An opioid will induce euphoria independent of cause

An opioid will induce euphoria amplifying a cause

No event/cause     Opioid will induce euphoria

Ordinary cause      Opioid will amplify normal pleasure to euphoria

Extraordinary cause     No opioid

Euphoria can be caused entirely by opioids, DA stimulants, NAc DBS.

Euphoria can be increased by other drugs, higher voltage

The key is context.

Feel like I won something great

I won something great

Qualities of euphoria: Basically, euphoria is intense, exclusive, out of context and objectless.

Intensity is obvious. Ekman refers to euphoria as dense pleasure.

Exclusive. One can't be euphoric and dysphoric. However manic euphoria

Different neuroscientists apply the term differently, usually to describe but not delimit. Statements like "euphoria is ____" or "euphoria represents ____" tend to be local and serve the researcher's direction of study. One may compare euphoria of drugs to food, while another then compares euphoria of infatuational love to drugs. But if orgasmic euphoria doesn't fit the model of drug euphoria, that doesn't disqualify the former. Neurology uses "aura" to describe preludes to seizures and to migraines, two distinct processes.

This is difficult. The definition of euphoria is fuzzy. On a general level the term is used metaphorically. Even in brain and behavioral science the term serves each author's purpose. Add to this fuzziness, that in lab animals it is difficult to distinguish euphoria from pleasure.

Synonyms of euphoria (Berridge): high, sensory pleasure, affective reaction, hedonistic value

Money can be euphoric.

The dramatic DBS-induced euphoria was expressed by one patient as feeling “happy. . . like I won a cruise”

Logically, actually winning a cruise would induce euphoria.

Winning a large amount of money would induce euphoria.

For contacts at which smiles and laughter were observed, a positive correlation between voltage and mood was found: The higher the voltage, the stronger was the mood elevation. which might be mediated by a different brain network (Haq et al. 2011). (Haq et al. 2011).

—Synofzik, Schlaepfer, Fins, "How Happy Is Too Happy? Euphoria, Neuroethics, and Deep Brain Stimulation of the Nucleus Accumbens", AJOB Neuroscience (2012) p 31

I believe. Dense anger can result in an irritable mood, just as

—Paul Ekman, Emotions Revealed, p 50.

A disdainful mood involved the emotions of disgust and contempt, a euphoric or high mood involves excitement and pleasure, an apprehensive mood involves fear.

—Paul Ekman, Emotions Revealed, p 50.

The terms euphoria and dysphoria represent calculations in the brain of how good or bad something is.

—A. David Redish, The Mind within the Brain, p 23-24

Robert Heath and his colleagues implanted several stimulating electrodes into the brain of a patient (for the treatment of epilepsy), and then offered the patient different buttons to stimulate each of the electrodes. On stimulation from pressing one button, the patient reported. On stimulation from the second button, the patient reported mild discomfort. However, the patient continued pressing the second button over and over again, much more than the ﬁrst. Euphoria and reinforcement are different.

—A. David Redish, The Mind within the Brain, p 24

Current work suggests that activation of the μ-opioid receptors signals euphoria, and activation of the κ-opioid receptors signals dysphoria. The functionality of the δ-opioid receptors is less clear but seems to be involved in analgesia ..., the relief of anxiety, and the induction of craving. Chemicals that stimulate μ-opioid receptors ... are generally rewarding, reinforcing, and euphorigenic.

—A. David Redish, The Mind within the Brain, p 25-6

, then this is a great example of the importance of recognizing our physical nature. . This also brings up a concept we will return to again and again in this book—the idea of a vulnerability or failure mode. We did not evolve μ-opioid receptors to take heroin; we evolved μ-opioid receptors so that we could recognize things in our lives that have value and thus give us pleasure. But Heroin accesses a potential failure mode of our brains— At least, it does so until the body gets used to it and dials down the μ-opioid receptor, leading to the user needing to take more and more heroin to achieve the same euphoria, until eventually even massive doses of heroin don’t produce euphoria anymore, they just relieve the persistent dysphoria left behind.

—A. David Redish, The Mind within the Brain, p 26

, while the lack of delivery of an expected reward leads to disappointment. Similarly, providing a negative thing (a punishment, leading to dysphoria) produces aversion, while the lack of delivery of an expected punishment leads to relief.

—A. David Redish, The Mind within the Brain, p 32

There is a system measuring, a system learning the usefulness of repeating actions (reinforcement), and a system recognizing change (disappointment). In parallel, there are the dysphoria, aversion, and relief systems.

—A. David Redish, The Mind within the Brain, p 34

In short, dopamine appears unable to cause changes in basic ‘liking’ reactions to sucrose. It stands in contrast to the hedonic hot spots described above, which use opioid, cannabinoid, and benzodiazepine signals to powerfully amplify the hedonic impact of natural sensory pleasures.

—Hedonic Hot Spots in the Brain

Wanting

Liking

Learning

Could you advise me regarding my graphic Historic Big Boy Franchisee Logos. Big Boy Restaurants historically operated through regional franchisees that were required to use their own name/logo with the Big Boy name/mascot. This graphic is a collection of these logos. And a labor intensive creation collecting and manually tracing raster images.

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My situation is unique but valid.

Now FastilyBot applied (BOT: Tag file with copyright status conflict). Any ideas?

There is a system measuring, a system

Opioids are among the world's oldest known drugs. The medical use of the opium poppy predates recorded history; recreational and religious use likewise precedes the common era. In the 19th century morphine was isolated and marketed, and the hypodermic needle invented, introducing rapid, metered administration of the primary active compound. Synthetic opioids were invented, and biological mechanisms discovered in the 20th century.