User:BridgetMn/Female genital mutilation in India

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Female genital mutilation (FGM) is practised in India by some Islamic groups. The procedure is generally performed when a girl is seven years old and involves the total or partial removal of the clitoral hood.[1] Consequences of FGM may range from discomfort to sepsis.

Edited Version:

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is a cultural practice that occurs in several cultures across Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. FGM occurs for many reasons; however, the most common reasons for the practice are aesthetics, purity, and chastity. The procedure frequently occurs at the age of seven and involves all procedures that result in the partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to female genital organs. The consequences of FGM take on a wide variety and can range from discomfort to sepsis. They can also lead to psychological consequences, such as post-traumatic stress disorder.

The topic of FGM has remained highly controversial and has garnered both support and opposition for the practice due to its roots in cultural and religious practices.

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Methods

The World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) have defined FGM as "all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons." The procedure is most commonly performed by a traditional practitioner (cutters or exciseuses) and can include local specialists, birth attendants, and older community members, most frequently women. Reports have indicated that in some cases, the procedure may use unsterilized, improvised tools such as knives or razors. Presently, the World Health Organization (WHO) has classified FGM into four categories or types, ranging from type 1 to type 4.

Type I (subheading)

Type I pertains to the total or partial removal of the clitoris and can be divided into two subsections: Type Ia and Type Ib. Type Ia consists of the removal of the clitoral hood or the skin surrounding the clitoris only. Type Ib involves the removal of both the clitoris and surrounding skin. According to studies of the Dawoodi Bohra communities, Type Ia and Type Ib are commonly practised in India.

Type II (subheading)

Type II is the total or partial removal of the clitoris and inner labia, but can include the outer labia as well. Type II has three subsections: Type IIa, Type IIb, and Type IIc. Type IIa involves the removal of the labia minora only; Type IIb involves the partial or total removal of the clitoris and labia minora and Type IIc involves the partial or total removal of the clitoris, labia minora and labia majora.

Type III (subheading)

Type III consists of narrowing the vaginal opening, generally through methods of stitching. Often referred to as infibulation, Type III can be performed with or without the removal of the clitoris and surrounding tissue (Type I). When distinguishing between variations of Type III, the distinctions of Type IIIa and Type IIIb are used. Type IIIa involves the "removal and repositioning of the labia minora," whereas Type IIIb involves the "removal and repositioning of the labia majora."

Type IV (subheading)

Type IV is generally undefined but involves burning, scraping, piercing, cauterizing, and/or pricking the area. There are very few cases of Type IV in India or within the Dawoodi Bohra community.

Health Consequences

Dr. Meghana Reddy J, a gynaecologist, reported in 2018 that khatna can lead to complications in later life, including difficult deliveries and urinary infections. In one case a girl had developed sepsis after having had khatna and great effort had been required to revive her.[7]

In conjunction with a small study, the first of its kind in India, twenty Bohras were examined by Dr. Sujaat Vali, an obstetrician and gynaecologist, who reported that only a specialist would be able to separate and cut the clitoral hood without also cutting the clitoris, and the clitoris had been cut in most cases examined.[8][2] According to Vali, "[h]alf of them feel some kind of irritation, while 30% either feel discomfort while walking/urinating or have lost sensitivity in the area." The study covered 83 women and 11 men from five Indian states and found that 75 percent of the respondents' daughters who were at least seven years old had been subjected to FGM.[2]

Although the practice of FGM in India or in the Dawoodi Bohra community has yet to be adequately researched, an informal poll of Dawoodi Bohra women concluded that with Type I, the most commonly used type in Dawoodi Bohra tradition, no health consequences occurred. The health consequences that do occur from FGM can be divided into two categories: immediate consequences and long-term consequences.

Immediate Consequences
The health consequences of FGM are dependent on the severity of the mutilation, with most consequences being immediate and short-term. The immediate short-term consequences of FGM can include:


 * Acute pain
 * Shock
 * Bleeding
 * Tetanus
 * Gangrene
 * Septicemia
 * Hepatitis B and C
 * Ulcers in genital organs
 * Death
 * Haemorrhage
 * Infection
 * Keloid Scaring
 * Cysts and abscesses
 * Urinary tract infections

Many of these consequences occur as a result of the procedure performed and may be short-lasting or treatable with proper medical care.

Long-term consequences (subheading)
The long-term consequences may vary depending on the type of FGM performed and can be further divided into physical and psychological consequences. While reports vary slightly, studies have most commonly found that FGM "results in psychological consequences."

Psychical Long-Term Consequences

 * Dysuria
 * Chronic Pain
 * Menstrual problems
 * Long-Term Infections
 * Recurrent urinary tract infections
 * Painful sexual intercourse
 * Infertility
 * May increase pregnancy complications
 * May cause neonatal fatality
 * Future complications in surgeries
 * Difficulty or inability to orgasm
 * Lack of physical stimulation

Psychological Long-Term Consequences
Occurrence Further information: Dawoodi Bohra § Female genital mutilation
 * PTSD
 * Anxiety
 * Low libido
 * Depression
 * Sexual frustration
 * Phobias

FGM is practised by the Dawoodi Bohra, a sect of Shia Islam with one million members in India.[2] Known as khatna, khafz, and khafd, the procedure is performed on six- or seven-year-old girls and involves the total or partial removal of the clitoral hood.[3][2] The spiritual leader of the Dawoodi Bohra, Mufaddal Saifuddin, clarified that while "[r]eligious books, written over a thousand years ago, specify the requirements for both males and females as acts of religious purity", the Bohras must "respect the law of the land" and refrain from carrying out Islamic female circumcision in countries where it is prohibited.[4] Other Bohra sects including the Sulemani Bohras and the Alavi Bohras,[5] as well as some Sunni communities in Kerala, are reported as practising FGM.[6]

Edited Version: FGM is practised by the Dawoodi Bohra, a sect of Shia Islam with one million members in India. Known as khatna, khafz, and khafd, the procedure is performed on six- or seven-year-old girls and involves the total or partial removal of the clitoral hood. There are four classified types of FGM: Type 1 consists of total or partial removal of the clitoris; Type 2 is the total or partial removal of the clitoris and inner labia (this can include the outer labia as well); Type 3 involves narrowing the vaginal opening, generally through methods of stitching; and Type 4 is generally undefined but involves "burning, scraping, and/or piercing" the area. The spiritual leader of the Dawoodi Bohra, Mufaddal Saifuddin, clarified that while "[r]eligious books, written over a thousand years ago, specify the requirements for both males and females as acts of religious purity", the Bohras must "respect the law of the land" and refrain from carrying out Islamic female circumcision in countries where it is prohibited. Other Bohra sects including the Sulemani Bohras and the Alavi Bohras, as well as some Sunni communities in Kerala, are reported as practising FGM.

Opposition

In November 2011 a Bohra woman posted an online petition requesting that Mohammed Burhanuddin, the then religious leader of the Dawoodi Bohras, ban FGM. A spokesman ruled out any change saying "Bohra women should understand that our religion advocates the procedure and they should follow it without any argument."

Two Mumbai-based groups, Sahiyo and We Speak Out, launched a campaign in February 2016 called "Each One Reach One"; the campaign was repeated during Ramadan in 2017. The campaign promoted conversations about female genital cutting. In an online survey of Bohra women, Sahiyo found that khatna had been performed on 80 percent of participants, with most cut when aged six or seven; 81 percent wanted the practice to stop.

On 10 December 2016 (Human Rights Day), a group of Dawoodi Bohra women started an online petition calling for FGM to be banned. A similar petition was conducted by the group a year earlier; that petition was submitted to India's Women and Child Development Minister Maneka Gandhi. Also that month, Dawoodi Bohra women petitioned the United Nations demanding that India be recognised as a country where Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) or Female Genital Cutting (FGC) is practised. In September 2017, when the 36th regular session of the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) was conducting a Universal Periodic Review of India, a written submission on FGM in India was presented at a side event. That was the first time the issue of FGM in India had been raised at the United Nations.

Edited

'''In 2011 Bano a 21 year old law student who was also a Bohra woman posted an online petition requesting that Mohammed Burhanuddin, the then religious leader of the Dawoodi Bohras, ban FGM. A spokesman ruled out any change saying "Bohra women should understand that our religion advocates the procedure and they should follow it without any argument." Two Mumbai-based groups, Sahiyo and We''' '''We Speak Out, launched a campaign in February 2016 called "Each One Reach One"; the campaign was repeated during Ramadan in 2017. The campaign promoted conversations about female genital cutting. In an online survey of Bohra women, Sahiyo found that khatna had been performed on 80 percent of participants, with most cut when aged six or seven; 81 percent wanted the practice to stop. '''

'''In 2012, The United Nations declared February 6th as International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital Mutilation. This was done in an effort to raise awareness around FGM. Alongside, declaring this day the UN created a joint programme surrounding the ban of FGM. In 2023 they created a theme that partnered with the #MenEndFGM group called "Partnership with Men and Boys to transform Social and gender Norms to End FGM". '''

On 10 December 2016 (Human Rights Day), a group of Dawoodi Bohra women started an online petition calling for FGM to be banned. A similar petition was conducted by the group a year earlier; that petition was submitted to India's Women and Child Development Minister Maneka Gandhi. Also that month, Dawoodi Bohra women petitioned the United Nations demanding that India be recognised as a country where Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) or Female Genital Cutting (FGC) is practised. In September 2017, when the 36th regular session of the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) was conducting a Universal Periodic Review of India, a written submission on FGM in India was presented at a side event. That was the first time the issue of FGM in India had been raised at the United Nations.

Edited

'''Other social movements became prevalent as FGM in general and in India began to be acknowledged. One of them being a NGO The Orchid Project. The Orchid Project was founded in 2011 in the UK by Julia Lalla-Maharajh OBE. Each country that is subjected to FGM has an individual extension.'''

'''India is one of the countries focused on by The Orchid Project. On their country specific page it specifies what type of FGM, percentage, and other important statics around FGM in India. It highlights past challenges, current challenges, and resources regarding the FGM cases in India.'''

'''The Orchid project is currently following a five year strategy starting in 2023 and ending in 2028. It consists of three steps to follow in hopes of an end of FGM in each affected country India being one of the leading ones. The project also consists of various sizes and types of donations.'''

Although the project doesn't solely focus on India it is a resource that contributes to the end of FGM in India, while advocating and spreading awareness about FGM in India.

The Role of Sexism and FGM in India

Considering the discord and public aversion to FGM worldwide and specifically in India, it is significant to see the factors that effect and continue FGM in India, sexism being one of the leading factors. FGM in the Bohra community, "is believed to mark a rite of passage to adulthood, girls are robbed of their sexuality at a very young age just so the Patriarchal culture demands it." Although, individuals part of this community believe in this groups and women that have gone through the process feel as if it's a,"direct attack on a woman's sexuality." FGM is a social norm in the Indian Bohra community and, "nonconformity to social norms is commonly sanctioned to various degrees with consequences ranging from personal feelings of guilt to social exclusion, stigma, and shame" which furthers the pressure to conform to FGM in order to fit into ones community.

Due to such firm beliefs in this tradition other stances and claims have been made in order to reinforce the pursuit of FGM in the Bohra community. One claim made by many FGM practicing communities is that, "uncut women are prohibited from participating in important religious celebration," or are considered to, "bring bad luck into the bride’s life." "Understanding the complex social norms and cultural value systems that shape the meaning and significance of the practice within this community is critical to the work of anti-FGC advocates" as it enforces that Bohra women are not dehumanized, and that their culture is still respected despite the practice of FGM. With gender politics in mind, "In India and in the West, there is a tendency to see gender violence and misogyny in India as an expression of 'culture' and 'tradition'" which adds context as to why FGM is heavily unmentioned but also considered a social norm within the Indian Bohra community.