User:Brigade Piron/sandbox2

The Independent Belgian Brigade, colloquially known as the Piron Brigade (Dutch and Brigade Piron) after its commanding officer, was a Belgian and Luxembourg military formation in the British Army during the Second World War. It originated in various military formations established in 1940 which were expanded and formally reorganised into a brigade group in 1943. The Brigade was the principle land unit of the Free Belgian forces and participated in fighting on the Western Front in 1944 and 1945. It played an important role in the reconstruction of the Belgian Army after the Liberation of Belgium in September 1944.

The unit originated in August 1940 as an ad hoc unit of Belgian soldiers which escaped from the Belgian surrender in Flanders which steadily grew in size and was fundamentally reorganised as a brigade group in December 1942 under the command of Major, later Colonel, Jean-Baptiste Piron. Stationed in Wales and England for its first years, the Brigade was deployed to France in the aftermath of the Normandy Landings in June 1944. It participated in fighting in Northern France and Belgium and was notably one of the first Allied units to enter Brussels, the Belgian capital, on 4 September 1944. The Brigade continued to fight in the Netherlands until November 1944 when it was withdrawn to be expanded and reorganised in Belgium.

Redeployed to the Netherlands in May 1945, it later formed part of the Belgian army of occupation in Germany and was integrated into the Belgian Army. Today, the unit's traditions are preserved within the Belgian Army's Liberation/5th Line Battalion (Bataljon Bevrijding – 5 Linie).

Origins

 * 1940
 * Belgian neutrality
 * Military strength of 600,000–650,000
 * Surrender and the divide with the Government
 * Short-term attempt to form an army in France (CRAB)

Creation, May–November 1940
The creation of a Belgian Army in the United Kingdom began in May 1940 at the same time as the surrender of the Belgian Army in Flanders. Lieutenant-General Victor van Strydonck de Burkel, a retired cavalry officer, became the focus for small groups of Belgian soldiers arriving from Belgium and Northern France at their own initiative. Many had been disarmed and detained on their arrival in Britain and sought assistance from the Belgian Embassy in London. Supported by the Embassy, Van Strydonck established a provisional headquarters in the seaside town of Tenby, Pembrokeshire in Wales to accommodate them. It was termed the Belgian Military Regrouping Camp (Camp militaire belge de regroupement, or CMBR). However, there were no plans to establish a permanent Belgian military presence in the United Kingdom; on 2 June 1940, 550 soldiers were sent back to the Continent to join the Belgian force being rebuilt in Southern France before the French surrender two weeks later.

Belgian soldiers continued to arrive in Tenby after the French surrender but their status was unclear as the Pierlot government appeared to be contemplating an separate armistice with Nazi Germany. Marcel-Henri Jaspar, who attempted to establish a pro-Allied government in London, made attempts to reach out to the soldiers at Tenby but no recognized government in exile was formed in the United Kingdom until October 1940 when the Prime Minister, Hubert Pierlot, arrived from France. In the interim, some Belgians had already enlisted on an individual basis in the British Royal Air Force, Royal Navy, and Merchant Navy but the creation of distinct national military units was delayed by political difficulties. On 10 August 1940, the first formation was created at Tenby as the "Belgian Fighting Unit" (Unité combattant belge, UCB) under the command of Edmond De Paepe. At the same time, the Embassy began to recruit among Belgian refugees and expatriates living in the United Kingdom. The UCB was deployed on coastal protection duties near Tenby in September and soon reached battalion-strength. It was re-designated the 1st Fusilier Company on 24 September and subsequently the 1st Fusilier Battalion on 12 October by which time it numbered around 825 men. Major Charles Cumont, previously Belgium's military attaché, took command of the unit. From October, the unit began to receive British uniforms, equipment and vehicles for the first time.

The consolidation of the government in exile in London on 22 October 1940 placed the Belgian Army on a surer political foundation. One of its first acts was to extend conscription to Belgian expatriates living in Allied and neutral countries, notably in Canada, where there was a sizeable emigrant population, the United States and Latin America. However, there remained significant political unrest within the 1st Fusilier Battalion because many officers believed that Pierlot had colluded in the denunciation of the King in May and June 1940. The unrest culminated in the composition of a manifesto by officers loyal to the King on 10 November which criticised the government. In following years, the government would struggle to contain Leopoldist unrest within the unit.

Expansion and splits, 1940–42
After the formation of the 1st Fusilier Battalion in October 1940, the government attempted to expand the force still further with the aid of new recruits. A camp was established at Cornwall, Ontario in Canada in February 1941 to receive new recruits from the Americas.


 * 1) 1st Fusilier Battalion created 8 October 1940 (or 12 October)
 * 2) 2nd Fusilier Battalion created February 1941 at Cornwall, Ontario. Because Bn on 1 July 1941.
 * 3) Artillery unit (1st Belgian Field Artillery Battery) created 8 February 1941 and was equipped with 25 pounder field guns
 * 4) Armoured unit (1st Belgian Armoured Car Squadron) of company-strength created February 1941 (or 14 June)
 * 5) Loss of 120-men from A Coy for parachute unit, 8 May 1942
 * 6) Loss of men for commando unit, June 1942
 * 7) Reorganisation of Brigade in December 1942


 * Low morale. "The Belgian armyu in Britain had many of the same morale problems that the British did, but a harsh German occupation of their homeland and the unknown fate of family and friends often made their unhappiness more intense. The officers, who tended to be older and more aaware of the significance of their king's actions, had the additional concern about Leopold's welfare and attitude in captivity. The enlisted men, who tended to be younger and single, were more concerned about the shortages of daily life and chronic boredom."
 * Further unrest about unpopular officers.


 * Unit moved to Carmarthen, West Wales in February 1941. An artillery battery was created alongside the battalion.
 * Overseas Belgians conscripted on 31 October 1940 by the Pierlot gov't, contributing about 100 new recruits each year from the United States, Canada, Latin America and elsewhere.
 * Second battalion created on 23 February 1941 under Major William Grisar. It was expanded in June 1941 by a contingent of 200 Belgians from North America under Eddy Blondeel which had formed at Cornwall, Ontario.
 * Creation of a reconaissance unit, the 1st Belgian Armoured Car Squadron, on 14 June 1941 under Captian Lechat. It was initially equipped with Guy Armoured Cars, later replaced by Humber and later Daimler armoured cars.
 * Combined unit becomes the "Belgian Independent Infantry Group" in July 1941 and deployed to Great Malvern, England. Soon afterwards (8 August 1941) Raoul Daufresne de la Chevalerie replaced Van Strijdonck as the overall commander of Belgian ground forces.

Political unrest, July-December 1942

 * Daufresne was removed in autumn 1942 amid "inaction on soliders' concerns and his open rancor towards exiled Socialist politicians". Shortly afterwards, Henri Rolin becomes Under-Secretary of State for Defence.
 * Rolin, a liberal jurist,
 * May 1942: 120 volunteers canibalised from the 2nd Fusilier Battalion to create a parachute company, later the Independent Belgian Parachute Company under Blondeel which became part of the SAS Brigade on 4 February 1944.
 * June 1942: Creation of a Belgian troop within No.10 Commando.
 * Minor mutiny among the artillery battery at Crickhowell after three soldiers were arrested in London on 17 November 1942 for attempting to present a petition to the Belgian government. 40 men refused to fulfill any military functions other than guard and kitchen duties for four days and an ultimatum was sent to the British press which condemned the Pierlot government. 14 men were convicted by a court martial and sentenced to imprisonment and the unrest embarassed the government.

Reorganisations, 1942–43

 * Two Fusilier battalions became independent motorised batalions on 20 November 1942. High-level reorganisation of the units on 12 December 1942 into the "1st Group" (based on former 1st Bn) at Carmarthen under Piron, incorporating three motorised companies, artillery battery, armoured car squadron, field engineer company, transport and medical units and the "2nd Group" (formerly 2nd Bn) at Leamington Spa with ancillary logistics and training units as well as airborne unit. A "3rd Group" was formed in December 1943 to train liaison and civil affairs officers.
 * More intensive training with 49th Infantry Division and better equipment provided.
 * 1st Group renamed 1st Belgian Brigade on 21 January 1943. First postings are on anti-invasion defences at Lowestoft, Ramsgate and Great Yarmouth where the units are garthered together.
 * 1st Belgian Brigade becomes the Independent Belgian Brigade on 27 July 1944
 * 1st Belgian Field Engineer Company formed in October 1943.

Campaign in France and Belgium, August–September 1944
signal, military police, medical, legal and other support officers and technicians.
 * Landed at the Mulberry harbour in Arromanches-les-Bains on 8 August 1944. Travelled in five Liberty ships. Numbered approximatley 1,650 men and 500 vehicles, including three companies of motorised infantry, an armoured reconnaissance squadron and an artillery group. Additional specialised companies included engineer,
 * Attached to the 6th Airborne Division and participated in Operation Paddle clearing coastline between Orne and Seine rivers. Liberated Franceville, Branville and Deauville were liberated by the Belgians between 17 and 24 August.
 * Redeployed to the 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division to participate in the siege of the German stronghold at Le Havre on 28 August.
 * Guards Armoured Division began an offensive towards Brussels on 2 September and the Piron Brigade was ordered to join it "more for political reasons than military necessity".
 * Crossed frontier into Belgium at Rongy, near Tournai, in the morning of 3 September 1944.
 * Parade in Brussels on 4 September.
 * Escorted Lt-Gen Brian Horrocks to meet Queen Elisabeth on 4 September 1944.

Reorganisation in Belgium, 1944–45
Reorganisation of 6 December sees:
 * 1-3 Infantry Bns
 * Transport Company
 * 1st Artillery regiment "Clercken" (1st Field Artillery Regiment (Belgium))
 * 1st Armoured Car Regiment was formed on 6 December 1944 and became 1st Guides Regiment on 8 March 1946.
 * Engineer units became 1st Engineer Bn and removed from the Brigade.
 * 1st Infantry Battalion re-designation "Liberation Battalion" (regiment?) on 8 March 1946.

Change in the formation patch on contact with the Secret Army (Belgium)

Re-deployment to the Netherlands, April–May 1945

 * By the end of the conflict, some 90 men had been killed in action.

Luxembourgers and the Luxembourg Battery
Luxembourg was invaded and occupied on 10 May 1940. It had no formal army of its own and was instead defended by a 425-man Volunteer Company (Compagnie des Volontaires) which offered only symbolic resistance. Shortly before the invasion, Grand Duchess Charlotte and her government fled into exile in France and later to the United Kingdom and Canada, establishing a presence in both London and Montréal by the end of 1940.

As the number of Luxembourgers was too small to establish separate national units, the Luxembourg government in exile encouraged individuals to enlist in the Belgian Army at least as early as 1941. Others had joined the British or Free French Forces, notably the 1st Battalion of Fusiliers Marins Commandos after its formation in 1942. Some had previously served in the Foreign Legion in French North Africa or been recruited from Allied prisoner of war camps after having been conscripted into the German Army following Luxembourg's annexation in August 1942.

Discussions between the Belgian and Luxembourg governments lead to the creation of a distinct national unit within the Artillery Group of the Piron Brigade in March 1944. C Troop, one of the three troops, was re-designated the Luxembourg Battery and originally consisted of 70 men under the command of Belgian officers. It was equipped with four QF 25-pounder field guns which the soldiers named after the daughters of the Grand Duchess. By the time the Brigade was deployed to Normandy, the battery's Luxembourgish personnel consisted of three officer candidates, nine non-commissioned officers and 68 other ranks in addition to its Belgian cadres. There were, in total, some 371 Luxembourgers serving across the Brigade by this time.

In September 1944, 46 new recruits volunteered for service and were given rapid training in the United Kingdom. They were subsequently integrated into the Luxembourg Battery as well as the Scout Section and other parts of the Brigade. Following the Liberation of Luxembourg, the government introduced military conscription on 30 November 1944 with a view to creating an independent national army. By July 1945, it had raised two infantry battalions. These were posted to Bitburg and Saarburg and participated in the Allied occupation of Germany until 1955.

Notable members

 * Enlisted in exile
 * Piet Vermeylen (1904-1991), politician, among the earliest volunteer at Tenby in 1940
 * Eddy Blondeel (1906–2000), engineer, later commander of the parachute company.
 * Jorge Sanjinez Lenz (1917–2020), Peruvian volunteer.


 * Enlisted after the liberation
 * Émile Janssens (1902–1989), colonial military officer transferred from the Force Publique.
 * Raymond M. Lemaire (1921–1997), art historian.

Designation

 * 1st and 2nd Groups: 12 December 1942–21 January 1943
 * 1st Belgian Brigade: 21 January 1943–27 July 1944
 * Independent Belgian Brigade: 27 July 1944–?
 * Liberation Regiment (?): 8 March 1946-?

Second colonial occupation
Second colonial occupation is a term coined by historians Anthony Low and John Lonsdale to describe a period of European colonialism beginning at the end of World War II. The term was first coined to refer to the British Empire in an article in the edited volume History of East Africa (1976), but has subsequently been used by other historians.

According to their thesis, the "Second Colonial Occupation" was a distinct period between 1945 and 1960 characterised by the strengthening of colonial rule. Previously, colonial administrators had tried to minimise the financial cost of empire by delegating authority to indigenous rulers through indirect rule. During World War II, Britain had accumulated a large debt to the United States through the lend-lease programme. In the postwar period, Britain needed goods for export and decided to use its colonies to produce tropical agricultural products for export. In order to achieve this, however, large numbers of experts (agronomists for example) were recruited to change indigenous agricultural processes. This led to unprecedented state interference in the day-to-day lives of the colonised population, driving the emergence of African anti-colonial nationalism. Often, the Colonial Development and Welfare Act 1940 is cited as a turning point in this process. It has been argued that there was a continuity between the ethos of the second colonial occupation and the post-colonial focus on development.

Social history
The origins of social history can be traced to the attempts of 18th- and 19th-century writers to challenge the centrality of individuals in history-writing. Its early supporters included Voltaire, Jules Michelet, Jacob Burckhardt, and Thomas Babington Macaulay who stressed the importance of social movements to political history. Early interest in social history was often connected to contemporary romantic nationalism which attempted to study past societies, cultures, and folklore in order to understand the Volksgeist to legitimise claims to national self-determination.

An important phase in the emergence of social history occurred in the 20th century as social historians attempted to separate their field from political history. G. M. Trevelyan was a particularly vocal supporter of this movement, arguing that social history needed to reject politics in order to become an independent subject. This perspective was supported by Marxist historians who saw society as the product of economic factors as part of a Marxist Base-Superstructure model. They also brought the idea of social classes, defined by economic status, which underpinned much social history analysis. As a result, social history became closely associated with economic history, becoming part of a field often known as "economic and social history".

Under the influence of the Annales School and Lucien Febvre in particular, social history was able to benefit from the increasing specialisation of history writing to advocate interdisciplinary research (incorporating new methodologies from psychology and sociology) on the past. They were interested in establishing how social change over long periods of time (the longue durée) could shape historical processes.


 * Social history has always been a particularly fluid and interdisciplinary field.

Elisabethville (Birtley)
Elisabethville, or Birtley-Elisabethville, was a settlement of Belgian refugee workers near Birtley, County Durham in England during World War I. It was named after Queen Elisabeth of Belgium. At its height, the community numbered 4,000 Belgians.

During the German invasion of Belgium, one million Belgians fled the German advance. As many as 200,000 sought refuge in the United Kingdom, especially in cities such as London, Birmingham and Winchester. At its height, between 2-4% of the entire Belgian population in Britain was living in Elisabethville.

The settlement was the product of a collaboration between the Belgian government in exile and the British, who provided the factories and accommodation in exchange for Belgian labour. A similar system had already been applied in Twickenham and Erin in London, where Belgians had operated British munitions factories. Elisabethville was intended to provide the Belgians with an autonomous community.

The community had its own newspaper The Birtley Echo (published in French, Dutch and English), church, school and shops. It was governed by Belgian police under Belgian law.

Tensions emerged between Belgians and British, as well as internally between Flemish and Walloon refugees.


 * Shell Crisis of 1915

19th century
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