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Cognitive enrichment
In the wild, animals deal with ecological challenges in order to acquire the resources, such as food and shelter, that they require to survive. These challenges arise from interactions with other animals, or through changes to their environment that require the individuals to exercise their cognitive ability and to improve their behavioral strategies. Therefore, these challenges act as an important problem-solving element in the animals' day-to-day lives, and in-turn, increases their overall fitness. Lack of cognitive stimulation can cause boredom and frustration which can potentially lead to abnormal behaviors.

Cognitive enrichment has been gaining more attention in the last few decades as it has shed some light on the importance of ecological challenges for captive animals, specifically laboratory, farm and zoo, as a means for improving wellbeing. However, there is no current consensus on the definition of this term. A proposed definition of cognitive enrichment is as follows: improving animal welfare by providing opportunities for captive animals to use cognitive skills for problem solving and providing limited control over some aspects of its environment. Typically, it involves a reward, be it a sense of satisfaction or receiving something tangible such as food. The animal therefore anticipates positive benefits from a challenging situation which can directly affect its emotional processes. Cognitive enrichment should be provided in addition to a diverse environment that is already structurally and socially enriched; it goes beyond the basic needs of the animals.

Cognitive enrichment can, however, overlap with other categories of enrichment. For instance, puzzle feeders are becoming a common practice, providing more challenge and skill than a routine feeding. Providing new toys in the environment and increasing social opportunities for rodents also increase cognitive stimulation. Some also consider training to be a form of cognitive enrichment, as it requires animals to use their cognitive skills to perform tasks in response to specific cues.

The term ‘cognitive enrichment’ first emerged in a 2003 study on age-dependent cognition in beagle dogs. The study found that given enough time, older animals still had the capacity to improve their cognitive skills. Research has also shown that more cognitive enrichment earlier in life affects long-term cognitive performance.

Laboratory research has demonstrated that increased cognitive enrichment can potentially improve laboratory sanitation, and the health and wellbeing of the animals. For example, one experiment used clicker training as positive reinforcement with laboratory mice in a three-week session with three different training challenges. Consequently, the trained mice exhibited a decreased fear of humans, depressive behaviors, and vocalizations.

Research on long-term cognitive enrichment in farm animals has also been tested using domestic pigs. The experiment began by conditioning the pigs to respond to unique acoustic noises in order to receive their food. Once they knew their own sound, they would be summoned individually to the feeding area. In the next phase, the pigs were required to press a button in order to receive their food and the number of times they needed to press the button increased with time. The pigs in the experiment that performed the cognitive enrichment were significantly less aggressive than the control pigs, experienced positive physiological changes, and were less fearful and more exploratory in novel situations.

Relative to the laboratory and farm setting, it appears that there are a limited number of research articles that have tested cognitive enrichment in zoos with definitive and measurable results. In a review of enrichment in nonhuman primate captivity, there were some mixed conclusions. It was found the puzzle box feeders increased foraging time for various species, a behavior which can be correlated with a decrease in aggressive and abnormal behaviors. However, in some cases there were no observable changes in its effects, and even an increase in aggression over competition for the puzzle box. There is evidence of a successful cognitive enrichment technique in one zoo where the chimpanzees were required to use various tools in feeder contraptions in order to replicate potential instances in their natural environment. The study was set up with different levels so they could slowly learn the techniques, so as to not discourage the chimpanzees. These specially designed feeders increased tool-using behaviors, while reducing abnormal and self-directed behaviors. The authors, however, do admit there were not many abnormal behaviors to begin with from this small sample group (n=5). Research has found that there is a need for additional cognitive enrichment in aquariums for cetaceans and pinnipeds that goes beyond animal training. Examples include encouraging increased choice, allowing additional control over their environment, and promoting more under-water problem solving devices and tasks.

Computerized and touchscreen tasks are growing in popularity as they provide feedback as to whether an animal is being cognitively stimulated, whether the task is overly challenging (potentially causing frustration) or not challenging enough (potentially causing boredom). These challenges typically test a specific cognitive skill and are designed so that results can be compared between individuals. However, it has been said that computerized tasks are not ideal or practical for a zoo enclosure setting.

Animal welfare research has been criticized for being anthropocentric, emotionally driven rather than scientific. It is argued that there is a need to take an allostasis view (stability through change), instead of a homeostasis view (maintained at a set point) of animal wellbeing which could potentially be achieved through improved cognitive enrichment. It is also argued that the success of enrichment is too often measured by observing a decrease in negative behaviour, for instance aggression, and that it should be measured by indication of good wellbeing and positive emotion. Others emphasize that it is crucial that there be benefits to the animal’s welfare in order for the process to be considered cognitive enrichment.