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Research question: What evolutionary forced drove the development of the CNS system from simple sensory neurons to the human brain ? Barton, Robert A. "Brain Evolution (Communications Arising): How Did Brains Evolve?" Nature (2002): n. pag. Nature.com. 10 Jan. 2002. Web. 14 Sept. 2014.

This source explains how the neocortex evolve in different proportion relative to the cerebellum for mammals. They do this by comparing the size of the cortex and cerebellum in different taxons. By determining how the physical size of the brain changes will help find to answer to why the brain evolve to the size it did in mammals.

Graham, Sarah A., and Simon E. Fisher. "Decoding the Genetics of Speech and Language." Current Opinion in Neurobiology 23.1 (2013): 43-51. Web.

This article explains the genetic components of how speech and Language evolved in humans. Humans high level of communication is most like a trait that natural selection acted upon that allowed for development of the human brain. It explains what gene are involved in speech and further outlines the differences between the human brain.

Holland, Nicholas D. "Early Central Nervous System Evolution: An Era of Skin Brains?" Nature Reviews Neuroscience 4.8 (2003): 617-27. Web. 14 Sept. 2014. Explains the Evolutionary history of the CNS system.

Lewin, R. "How Did Humans Evolve Big Brains?" Science 216.4548 (1982): 840-41. JSTOR. Web. 14 Sept. 2014. This article explains how the human brain came about from environment pressures.

Moroz, Leonid L. "On the Independent Origins of Complex Brains and Neurons." Brain, Behavior and Evolution 74.3 (2009): 177-90. Web. 14 Sept. 2014. This article explains controversial ideas about the origin and evolution of neurons and nervous systems, focusing on the independent origin the complex brains and origins of neurons. Neurons are the key component to sense and learn from the environment around. Learning how neurons rose will lead me in the origin of the brain

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence

.This article need to discuss the evolution of the CNS and how neurons lead to the human consciousness 2.It should have a section explaining if the evolution of neurons came from a Monophyly linage, meaning the origin of neurons from a single ancestral cell lineage, or a polyphyletic orgin, an independent origins of neurons and complex brains among species in different lineages. This important to determining if neurons ultimately are the best tool to ensure species survival or just a random mistake. 3.This article should also go into more detail about the evolutionary selection toward a social brain and how the human species reliance on social exchange is a driving force of brain development. perhaps discuss the benefits of social exchange.

Sentence added and citiation Other studies suggest that social exchange between individuals is a vital adaptation to the human brain, going as far to say that the human mind could be equipped with a neurocognitive system specialized for reasoning about social change.

Section added to wiki article https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence

Social exchange theory
Other studies suggest that social exchange between individuals is a vital adaptation to the human brain, going as far to say that the human mind could be equipped with a neurocognitive system specialized for reasoning about social change.Social Exchange is a vital adaptation that evolved in social species and has become exceptionally specialized in humans.This adaption will develop by natural selection when two parties can make themselves better off than they were before by exchanging things one party values less for things the other party values for more. However, selection will only pressure social exchange when both party are receiving mutual benefits from their relative situation; if one party cheats the other by receiving a benefit while the other is harmed, than selection will stop. Consequently, the existence of cheaters—those who fail to deliver fair benefits—threatens the evolution of exchange. Using evolutionary game theory, it has been shown that adaptations for social exchange can be favored and stably maintained by natural selection, but only if they include design features that enable them to detect cheaters, and cause them to channel future exchanges to reciprocators and away from cheaters. Thus, humans use social contracts to lay the benefits and losses each party will be receiving (If you accept benefit B from me, then you must satisfy my requirement R).Humans have evolved an advance cheater detection system, equipped with proprietary problem-solving strategies that evolved to match the recurrent features of their corresponding problem domains. Not only do humans need to determine the contract was violated, but also if the violation was intentionally done. Therefore, system are specialized to detect contract violations that detect intentional cheaters. ==Evolution of the Central Nervous System== The Central nervous system is perhaps the most complex organ system of any known animal species. Information from the environment is collect by neurons and allows the organism to respond to stimuli, appropriately. The nervous system developed from relativity simple effector muscle to preform basic movement to the network of complex neuron system to learn and communicate, and in the case of human, allow for consciousness and awareness (Moroz,2000). The Central Nervous gives the ability for an animal to learn from their environment and to actively adapt in an individuals own generation rather than genetics being the only factor that determines the reproductive success of an individuals. The ability to learn and pass down information has evolved so well in human that as a species, we are nearly insusceptible to natural selection. They can interact with environment so efficiently almost every relatively functional human will live long enough to reproduce( differential reproductive success allows natural selection to occur).This brings up the interesting question evolutionary question; does natural selection universally select toward intelligent social animals like humans? Evolution is random process were traits developed by different species depend on many random factor. However, if given an infinite amount of time, certain pattern of survival traits could be seen in species because they universally increase survival changes, regardless of external effects. Could the CNS and intelligence be one of those traits? To answer this question we must look at the evolution of the neuron and central nervous system and determine why these cell were selected for, since the nervous system ultimately gives rise to intelligence. We much also determine if the evolution of the CNS was monophyly or polygenesis ( if neuron came from a single linage or if they evolved independently in different species, respectively). If they arose in different species, this could be evidence that a nervous system is universally benefit. Finally we will look at the differences in the humans CNS from other organism that allow for the ability to control their own natural selection. The main component of any type of nervous system are neurons cells. Neurons differ from different Phyla, so coming up with a universal definition is not as straight forward as it would seem (Moroz, 2009). However in general, neurons are asymmetrical, secretory (chemical releasing) cells that can be polarized from various stimuli that causes information be passed on to other cell-types (Moroz, 2009). They can make synapse with other neurons to raise the speed and reliance of chemical transmission between one another. The neurons are thought to evolve from primitive secretory cells that developed receptive surfaces and separate secretory poles (Moroz 2009). The two region them became increasingly more displace but still remained connected with a conductible region that allowed for polarization; when these cells elongated to other cell types they evolved to become neurons (Moroz, 2009). These nuerons would than form connection with other neurons and cells to form nervous system to coordinated complex behaviors. The organization of these nervous systems can be broken down into three types. The first type of connection where effectors cell (motornuerons) that allowed for muscle movement and contraction. The second type where receptor cells (sensory organs) that allow for sensation of the outside side environment. The third type are adjustor (central nervous organs) cells that allow for the inhibition or facilitation (control) of motor and sensory neuron. The first class of a nervous system has only effectors, not receptors or adjustors, such as some sponges (Moroz, 2009). The second stage could be observed in Cnidarians (i.e jellyfish) that can form “receptor-effector system” or a nerve net. (Moroz, 2009). The next stage is the development of the adjustors that serve as intermediates between receptor and effector which are common in most vertebrates which eventually becomes the Central Nervous system (Moroz,2009). The Central Nervous system common of all vertebrates begins to evolve in the Cnidarians phylum. Cnidarians have two tissue layers ( epidermis and endoderm), with both of the layers containing neurons (Holland, 2014). Cnidarian neurons are not organized in a central nervous system, but rather groups of neurons scatter through out the body called nerve nets. The basiepidermal nerve net in cnidarian consist of the somas and neurites of interneurons and motor neurons, as well as neurites that extend inwards from epidermal sensory cells (Holland 2014). Bilateral symmetric animals are believed to have evolved from the Cnidarian, and is were beginning stages of the central nervous system start to develop. The basiepidermal nerve net was somehow localized to form a nerve cord, where most nerve organs reside at one end of the species; there heads.(Holland, 2014). The path that lead to the origin of the reorganization of nuero-systems is unknown, however, there are a variety of different forms of this centralized nervous system across different bilateralian animals (Moroz 2009). This could be looked at as evidence that neurons and the Central nervous system have evolved independently in different species. In his article, Moroz explains that the neurons have been evolved from different types of cell by comparing genomes from different species with nervous system, thus giving more evidence that the nervous system is polygenesis (Moroz, 2009). A central nervous system, and neurons conveying information in general, have been proven to evolve in multiple linages across different phylum. This could be interpreted as neuron systems to be universally beneficial to most organism. As organism diverge into different species and evolution takes its course, there is a noticeable change of increased complexity of nervous systems (bullock, 2002). Not only do you see an increase pattern in nuero-complexity with animals with advance central nervous system (such as verbrates and mammal), but also with animals with minimal nerve connection (bullock,2009). Neurons will evolve connections and new-cell types that allow them to control the circuity of the system. “Granule cells, connections restricted to part of the dendritic tree, inhibitory interneurons inserted into neural circuits…”, are evolutionary acquired novelties that Bullock argues will give rise to new behavior and the further evolution of the nervous system (Bullock, 2002). As the central nervous system develop in animals it lead to the formation of the brain; a large mass of neurons work in collective group to store (memory) or give out electrical signal to the rest of the organism. The brain is where the ability for animals to learn arises from. When animals can learn about their environment, they can make adjustments to their lifestyle to adapt to their environment and better their chances of survival (Barbieri, 2001). Non-learning animals can only adapt to their environment through genetic changes of their entire population from many passing of generations. Learning ability doesn’t correlate with brain size or number of neurons, but with complexity of neuro connection and qualitative novelties (bullock,2002). The Neocortex portion of the mammalian brain grows faster and denser than the cellebrum portion as a mammalian becomes more intelligent (lewin, 2014). Bigger animals will have bigger brains due to the fact they have a large surface area mass to account for, but by looking at brain size relative to the size of the animal you can determine a quota that relates to the relative brain size. The encephalization quotient (EQ), ratio of actual brain size compared to the expected brain size of an animal of that mass, will give you a somewhat accurate tool to measure an animal’s intelligence (Northcutt, 2002). This leads to the conclusion that evolutionary acquired novelties in the neuro-connection of neocortex have led to the increasing ability to learn. To understand how acquired novelties in cell types added to neuro-connection changes cognitive function, the mirror neuron provides a good example on how this acquired novelty drastically change the function of the primate’s ability to learn. Mirror neurons are sets of neurons located in the ventral pre-motor area of the frontal lobes of primates that fire when preforming a highly specific motion (Ramachandran,). Different neurons will fire for different specific actions and will also fire if the actions are being viewed from another primate (Ramachandran). These neurons allow primates to learn specific instruction from another source and to separate there action from others. This gives rise to the advance communication and learning skill in primates. Mirror neurons are acquired by humans as well. The incorporation of the acquired novelty of mirror neuron with the evolving central nervous system is what led to advanced learning mechanisms in humans, such as language and awareness. Certain tendency preformed from another human (using a tool) could be intimated by others and quickly spread through population (Ramachandran, 2000). Nuero-connection in the Central nervous system that involved using tools would then develop due to natural selection. A very important aspect of learning is not only learning from the environment, but also from other members from a population. The central nervous system developed neuro-connection to develop ways for species of the same group to commutate with one another to aid in the process of learning. Human language allows an idea that benefit one individual to be exchanged with everyone else to benefit the entire group (Ramachandran, 2000). Social animals like humans can mutually benefit from one another by exchanging resources. Learning is a large factor that control the selection of social exchange. Exchange will be selected for when two parties can make themselves better off than they were before by exchanging things one party values less for things the other party values for more (cosmids 2010). However, selection will only pressure social exchange when both party are receiving mutual benefits from their relative situation; if one party cheats the other by receiving a benefit while the other is harmed, than selection will stop. This is known as the game theory and is thought to be the reason for social behavior in animals (Cosmid 2010). Cosmids preformed an experiment that showed that human brains have evolved reasoning programs that allowed for the dection of cheaters and social contracts was developed by the ability to process recurring details to predict to an array of possible outcomes (cosmid, 2010). Human can detect patterns of stimuli and predict future outcome with amazing accuracy. An example would be when a dog is given a treat when he is told to sit, the dog will eventually sit without the treat form associative learning. However, when a human is rewarded for a deed, a human can calculate multiple ways to obtain this by making connections of all the detail they learn from the situation. They can take in account the treat giver demeanor, facial expression, race, voice tone and other factor to determine under what circumstances they will receive a reward. This ability to adapt to virtually any environment through learning is what separates human intelligent from any other species. The neurons and a nervous system give the ability for an organism to make responsive based of their environment. The central nervous system takes it a step further by letting an organism detect patterns of stimuli to predict and prepare for the environment. Natural selection selects for traits that allow an organism to adapt best to their environment, but an increasing evolved nervous system leads for an species to better and better adapt to the environment themselves without relying on natural selection to evolve their species. A nervous system it thought to have evolved separately 6-7 different times across different phylum (Morozo, 2005) This could mean the nervous system has a universal beneficial. Nuero system tend to become more complex allowing for different behaviors; more complexity usually generates improve learning ability. Natural sections only drive is to select organism that are most suitable for their environment so it would make since for it to select for a nervous system that allows for universal adaptation. Genetic drift, migration, and other random chance factor effect evolution as well, but if natural selection fitness coefficient is strong enough, trait like learning that lead to universal adaption would ultimately be selected for.

Refrences

Barbieri, Marcello. "Origin and Evolution of the Brain." Biosemiotics 4.3 (2011): 369-99. Web. 30 Oct. 2014.

Bullock, Theodore Holmes. "Grades In Neural Complexity: How Large Is The Span?." Integrative & Comparative Biology 42.4 (2002): 757. Academic Search Complete. Web. 30 Oct. 2014.

Cosmides, L., H. C. Barrett, and J. Tooby. "Colloquium Paper: Adaptive Specializations, Social Exchange, and the Evolution of Human Intelligence." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107.Supplement_2 (2010): 9007-014. Web.

Holland, Nicholas D. "Early Central Nervous System Evolution: An Era of Skin Brains?" Nature Reviews Neuroscience 4.8 (2003): 617-27. Web. 14 Sept. 2014.

Lewin, R. "How Did Humans Evolve Big Brains?" Science 216.4548 (1982): 840-41. JSTOR. Web. 14 Sept. 2014.

Moroz, Leonid L. "On the Independent Origins of Complex Brains and Neurons." Brain, Behavior and Evolution 74.3 (2009): 177-90. Web. 14 Sept. 2014.

Northcutt, R. G. Understanding vertebrate brain evolution. Integ. Comp. Biol. 42, 743–756 (2002).

Ramachandran, V.S., 2000. Mirror neurons and imitation learning as the driving force behind “the great leap forward” in human evolution. Edge. Web. 10.29.2014