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According to the National Science Foundation women and racial minorities are underrepresented in Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Scholars, governments, and scientific organizations from around the world have noted a variety of explanations contributing to this lack of racial diversity, including higher levels of discrimination, implicit bias, microaggressions, chilly climate, lack of role models and mentors, and less academic preparation.

Race imbalance in STEM
Racial minorities, with the exception of Asian Americans, are underrepresented through every stage of the STEM pipeline.

Education and Degree Attainment
Racial disparities in high school completion are a prominent reason for racial imbalances in STEM fields. While only 1.8% of Asian and 4.1% of White students drop out of high school, 5.6% of Black, 7.7% of Hispanic, 8.0% of Pacific Islander, and 9.6% of American Indian/Alaskan Native students drop out of high school. Among those that graduate high school, 67% of Whites, 62% of Blacks, and 69% of Hispanics enroll in a “degree granting college.” While there is no measurable difference in college enrollment of White, Black, and Hispanic STEM students, only 15% of Black students who initially enrolled in a STEM major received a STEM bachelor’s degree at graduation, compared to 30% of White and Asian students.

Employment, Occupation, and Income
According to the the National Science Board which provides statistical data on the U.S. labor force, Asians represent 9%, Whites 65%, Hispanics 14%, and Blacks 9% of the STEM labor force. In particular, white men are 49% of the STEM labor force. Among different STEM fields, Blacks make up only 4% of life science, 5% of engineering, 6% of physical sciences, 7% of the computer science, 9% of math and 11% of health-related sciences. There are also significant wage gaps between women, men, and people of color, especially in STEM jobs. An example of this disadvantage is the gender pay gap and racial pay gap in computer science fields, where women earn about 74% of what men earn and the median income for White workers is approximately 23.2% more than the median income for Blacks. The gender and racial pay gaps in STEM fields are significantly greater than all regular non-STEM jobs with an even greater pay gap between these gender, racial, and ethnic groups. When first being hired, 35% of women of color reported negotiating their salaries, but nearly 50% wished that they had negotiated their salary after starting the job. Many of these women reported being initially satisfied with the salary they had been offered when being hired, but later learned that they were earning much less than other workers at their same level.

Effects of Underrepresentation of POC in STEM
Among blacks working in STEM fields, 57% feel that there too little attention being directed toward adding more racial and ethnic diversity in the workplace. This lack of diveresity contributes to isolation and a lack of social support in the workplace which can increase anxiety and depression for many people of color in STEM.

Experiences of people of color in STEM
Recently, scholars have begun applying the framework of systemic racism to evidence ofracial minorities experiences with discrimination in STEM.

Microaggressions
People of color and underrepresented minority groups in science, technology, engineering and math are more likely than whites to experience racial microaggressions. Studies show racial microaggressions that occur on college campus weaken students sense of belonging, make it difficult to form relationships with faculty, and contribute to less cultural alignment with STEM. . At predominantly white institutions (PWI) environmental microaggressions are common in shared laboratory spaces among students and during meetings with faculty and advisors. Black female students are especially likely to feel alienated and isolated from their peers in STEM departments.

Implicit Bias
Research on implicit bias demonstrates that as early as preschool teachers are likely to hold implicit bias against students of color, especially black boys. While black children only make up 19% of preschool enrollment, they account for about half of preschool suspension. This disparity is often explained not as the result of students' behavior, but rather how teachers and administrators perceive white and black student behavior differently. Implicit biases among teachers, faculty, and colleagues makes it more difficult for students of color to form relationships, network with profesionals in their fields, and find valuable mentors. Judgements placed upon people of color based on implicit biases are incredibly damaging and contribute to stereotype threat, which affects their overall performances. For instance, Black women are often assumed to be underqualified forcing them to prove that they deserve to be in those spaces as was the case of Katherine Johnson depicted in Disney's "Hidden Figures".

Additional biases exist for LGBTQAI+ people of Color who find their STEM spaces to be even more difficult. For example, a Black trans male neuroscientist was praised for work he presented and told that it was much better than his sister's. Yet, what those who praised him failed to realize was that his sister's work was his own that he completed prior to transitioning. This encounter demonstrates important intersections of sexual orientation, race and gender that further complicate the experiences of people of color in STEM.

Sense of Belonging
When people do not feel welcome in a place, environment, or institution, they are less likely to feel they belong and more likely to withdraw. In particular, women and people of color often adopt individual strategies of assimilation or patriarchal bargaining in their attempt to gain acceptance. For example, Black male scientists adopt coping strategies to endure racialized interactions with colleagues and managers. Similarly, Black female undergraduates students describe coping with racism on campus by gravitating toward same-race peers, faculty, and staff. When underrepresented groups are forced to adapt or leave the field altogether, it costs STEM valuable talent and perspectives that could be used to advance scientific discoveries and advancements.

STEM Pipeline
The STEM pipeline starts to narrow early as students of color face additional barriers to STEM participation in school. {citation needed}

Primary and Secondary Schools
While there are no significant differences in math and science ability by race or gender disparities in test scores between students of different racial backgrounds indicate an racial achievement gap, especially in science. These test score disparities were attributed to two fundamental realities: socioeconomic status gaps between races and school qualities. The differences caused by these factors are even more apparent when students enter high school. About 50% of K-12 schools’ funding comes from local property taxes, and Black and Hispanic students are more than double as likely to live in low-income neighborhoods compared to White students, so their schools are receiving less funding for STEM programs (Ma and Liu, 2015). STEM students without proper high school preparation are put at a disadvantage when starting college, where they have to learn basic skills that their peers have already mastered (Strayhorn et al., 2013). Studies have also found correlations between certain high school courses taken and success in STEM majors in college. The majority of STEM college students of colour wished that their high schools would have offered AP or IB classes in the sciences to better prepare them for college (Strayhorn et al., 2013). Students who took trigonometry, pre-calculus, or calculus in high school were found to be more likely to major in a STEM field in college (Chen and Weko, 2009). Students of colour who attend schools with less funding and are affected by racial stereotypes are less likely to take these classes that would set them up for success in a STEM major in college. Because of that, these children don’t know if STEM is something that they want to pursue further, leading to the lack of representation (Johnson). Even with high achievements, people of color and minorities still feel excluded and not welcomed in the STEM community.

In middle school it is important for students to develop feelings of self-efficacy in STEM related fields in order for them to pursue careers in STEM. Preparation and academic achievements during these years can predict whether a student will choose a STEM major in college. Girls of color not associating themselves with STEM because of their lack of knowledge and believing they are not good at science influences their future passions. (Kang, Barton, Tan, Simpkins, Rhee, & Turner)It will steer them away from STEM. Not having a strong sense of self in STEM will affect their possibilities to flourish in STEM. Another factor that determines young girls of color in STEM is family/home life. More people of color are faced with poverty, so their experiences and involvement in STEM will be limited. Girls of color may not get the opportunities to be introduced to STEM, so they will not be able to experience it to see if it is an interest to them.

College
In the collegiate setting, people of color are still discriminated against by way of racial microaggressions. These microaggressions contribute to the  emotional well being of these college students. When people of color are dealing with these aggressions, they begin to question their worth and whether or not they should continue in their STEM major (Springer). One study looked specifically at people of color in an engineering graduate program. It showed microaggressions from their counselors, mentors, and fellow students which resulted in unnecessary non-normative strain upon these students. Their advisors undermined their confidence and even recommended that they transfer to a different school because they were not seen as smart enough to be there. Their fellow White and Asian students excluded them from essential study groups that makes earning their degree much more difficult. These combinations of factors lead to drop outs and people of color not recommend the program to future engineering students of color. (Burt et al). These microaggressions lead to less confidence in oneself and a lower retention rate of knowledge, all of these things coupled together lead to abandonment of their original STEM major and the switch to something that they feel will better suit them, when in reality STEM is where they belong.

Ma and Liu identified three college experiences that lead to students of colour dropping out of STEM fields: academic preparation, STEM learning culture in college, and role models/support in college (Ma and Liu, 2015). Students from low-income backgrounds who are already unprepared for college need extra help and support. Many introductory STEM courses are seen as “unnecessarily difficult,” and these classes often “weed out” the students that have less STEM backgrounds and experiences, which disproportionately affects Black and Hispanic students (Ma and Liu, 2015).

Mentorship
The United States is becoming increasingly diverse in its demographics. However, white men are still overrepresented in STEM fields, and despite the call for more diversity, countless efforts remain slow. Mentors for those in STEM fields affect students' motivation and likelihood for success in STEM academics. Mentorship can positively affect students of color; however, the mentors they most likely receive are white. The lack of mentorship from a mentor of similar ethnic background can lead to a student of color feeling unheard or unimportant due to the likeliness of mentors ignoring the influences of race that may affect the student of color (ByarsWinston, et al., 2019). Students of color are likely to report that having a mentor from a similar ethnic background would give them a sense of belonging and a feeling they can succeed. A study found a connection between same-race faculty and academic success (Strayhorn and Long et al., 2013). Since there is a lack of racially diverse mentors, it is essential to find ways white mentors can effectively work with students of color.

Harrassment
Women are more vulnerable to experience any sort of harassment. Women of color were more likely to face gender and racial harassment compared to white women and men which was described as a double jeopardy for minority women that were exposed to harassment in the workplace. A study showed that 50% of women felt that they are more likely to experience gender-related discrimination at work than men. Only 19% of men felt they would experience discrimination at work. In the same study, 22% of women in STEM jobs reported to have experienced sexual harassment at work and 20% of women felt that their gender has made it harder for them to succeed. Only 7% of men stated that they have experienced sexual harassment and 25% of men believe that their gender has made it easier for them to succeed in their jobs. However, Black people in STEM jobs are significantly more likely to experience race-based discrimination in STEM jobs. About 62% of black people in STEM have stated that they experienced any type of racial/ethnic discrimination at work while only 12% of white people have said they have experienced any racial/ethnic discrimination. Therefore, harassment in STEM fields has significantly impacted underrepresented minorities. Many have questioned their ability to succeed in their jobs and these factors have made it harder for those groups to succeed in their STEM careers.

Exclusion
Discrimination in the work place takes the form of rude comments or slurs and undervaluing women and people of color and excluding them from activities. There are more than 60% of African Americans in STEM that have experienced racially motivated discrimination, whereas only 42% Asians or Hispanics experienced discrimination in the workplace. The main form of exclusion in the workplace includes lack of mentorship. In the workplace, receiving a mentor is crucial to organizational socialization and career development. It is acquired between a senior individual and a less senior individual in order to gain the skill and abilities to be successful in professional roles. However in order for it to be successful, it must be psychosocial mentoring which includes the aspect of being accepted, and validation as a professional. Undergraduate workers in STEM preferred for mentors to be the same gender and race, especially when they were women or ethnic minorities. Women and people of color feel excluded in the workplace and treated as if they are not there or treated as a custodian. In the movie Hidden Figures, when the women were given a better position, they were treated as if they were custodians and underrepresented in the workplace. For example, when Katherine was given a better position she had to run half a mile in order to go to the restroom. A specific type of exclusion included the aspect about feeling evaluated highly. According to Roberta Rincon, approximately 58% of women of color indicated that they felt their performance in the workplace was evaluated fairly. Without their honest feedback and guidance, their career advancement can be difficult to achieve.

Socialization
When socialization is discussed as an explanation for racial disparities in STEM in the article, it is stated that the belief that an individual might not belong in a STEM field of study could start with the social interactions they face in preschool and continue throughout the rest of one’s education. An example of these social interactions could include using racial bias when deciding which classes to place a student in, learning stereotypes, microaggressions, lack of mentorship, and harassment.

Stereotypes and Preconceived Notions of STEM
Stereotypes are a societal explanation for the underrepresentation of URM/POC in STEM. An examination of structural racism in STEM and higher education would allow for better understanding of policies, practices, and procedures which encourage the foundation of racism. This includes White Hegemony such as eugenics. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, eugenics identified racial stereotypes and their level of desirability using faulty science. There are lasting effects of the eugenics movement today as social identities are formed based on norms, attitudes, traits, and stereotypes. Those who vary from the societal norm are marginalized. A study highlighting the underrepresentation of women and racial minorities in STEM found that Asian and White candidates were viewed as more competent and hirable than Black and Latino/a candidates. Survey results for individuals’ familiarity with diverse STEM professionals showed a relatively low ability to name STEM professionals, unless those professionals are Caucasian males. Additionally, surveyed students appear to have greater familiarity with Hispanic and African American female social media influencers than STEM Professionals. This familiarity results in socialization which later forms stereotypes. Students who identify as URM/POC face stereotypes such as assumptions about a student's intellectual ability to succeed. Examples of these stereotypes include misconceptions and assumptions of affirmative action beneficiaries, sport scholarships, criminal history, and “at-risk” students emerging from low-income communities.

Those who are misrepresented most in the STEM fields are females and POC, this is due to preconceived notions and stereotypes that these groups of people have faced as early as middle school or highschool(Grossman-Porche p.2). Furthermore African Americans and Hispanics may not always have the same access to higher level high school courses that are building blocks for success in College STEM fields(Grossman-Porche p.2). The Scientific Identity theory helps one better understand how societal influences may limit or support adolescents’ science engagement(Brickhouse, Lowery, and Schultz, 2000). The theory suggests that adolescents’ science engagement is shaped by individual notions as well as surrounding social systems. For those who experience stereotypes, like “women don’t belong in  STEM  or “women don’t have the capacity for STEM related subjects , at a young age are more likely to turn away from the STEM fields(Grossman-Porche p.3)

Stereotype Threat
Research done by the University of Pennsylvania found feelings of tokenism, spotlighting, and onlyness cause Black students to fear stereotype threat and often results in academic underperformance.

One of the streams of adversity comes from stereotypes placed on underrepresented under represented minorities (URM). In fact, scholars have researched stereotype threats and the impact it has on the individual themselves. In these studies, many students were well aware of societal stereotypes, especially for minorities at the intersection of race and gender. For example, many Black women expressed that others assumed they were loud and unruly when things didn't work out in their favor. Minoritized students felt that others make them well aware of their differences and consider them as lazy, which caused them to have feelings associated with race-based stereotype threat. And for those who were high achievers, others constantly compared their level of success based on the societal stereotypes of Black students traditionally being seen as low achievers. These pressures made Black students respond with self-protective measures, which included coping strategies. Studies like these show that URM graduate students, especially Black students, must develop a resilience towards stereotypes as a personal attribute that positively impacts their desire to persist.

Imposter Syndrome
Imposter syndrome is one such result of sociological imposed beliefs. Society has reinforced the idea that successful scientists tend to be straight, cisgendered white men of a certain age. This causes brilliant people to feel imposter syndrome because they do not fit the historical standard in the field. For a similar reason, people of color do not try to join the STEM field because they do not believe they can achieve greatness (cite?). This belief is instilled upon them at a young age through society and schooling.

Interest, Preference, and Choice
The overall difference in mathematical ability between boys and girls is insignificant. Rather than lacking ability in math and science, girls and women may be underrepresented in STEM fields due to lack of interest in math and science. It was found that social and attitudinal factors, including interest, had a greater influence on grades and enrollment in science/math classes in junior and senior high school than did variations in mathematical ability. Scholars have also demonstrated the effect of “biased self-assessments '', or women's lower confidence in their mathematical/scientific abilities, that contributes to their likelihood of entering scientific fields. In a similar manner, students “confidence in their ability to successfully perform the professional role and confidence in their ability to enjoy and find fulfillment in that role” is significantly predictive of persistence in STEM fields, and women tend to have less professional role confidence.

Stem Identity
The development of a STEM identity increases the overall likelihood that a student will continue to develop scientific literacy and pursue a STEM career. The National Research Council's 2009 report, Learning Science in Informal Environments, describes students developing STEM identities as learning to “think about themselves as science learners and develop[ing] an identity as someone who knows about, uses and sometime[s] contributes to science.” Research shows that Black girls are less likely to develop STEM identities in middle school because they have fewer science-related experiences outside of school and less confidence in their scientific ability than Asian-American, Latina, and White middle school girls, making them less likely to enter STEM fields in the future.

Strategies for increasing representation of POC in STEM
There are a multitude of factors that may explain the low representation of minorities in STEM, action is needed in order to eliminate the underrepresentation. This can be done by incorporating role models, mentors, providing bias training and protective factors, and influencing diversity.

Diversifying STEM fields is an important goal.

Increasing the representation of people of color within STEM requires collective action among educators, governments, organizations, and learners.

For Society
Underrepresentation of women and people of color in STEM is a problem that is rooted from society.

Diversity Awareness
Diversity in STEM is a struggle that has multiple influences around it. This diversity issue can come from gender and implicit biases that are held by individuals. New Directions for Institutional Research states, “Ignoring race and ethnicity obscures important dimensions of women’s experiences in STEM and fosters the notion of a universal gender experience of women of color or the effects of racial privilege for white women.” (footnote 1) There should not be further marginalization being done to women of color. Changes in what is universally accepted for women and women of color.

Gender inequality is ingrained in societal beliefs and is universal. Inequality should be approached as a societal issue and challenging it needs to be addressed by everyone. In order to improve or provide some sort of change, Royal Society 2018, Tapping all our Talents, suggests “...a step change in real gender equality, in STEM and elsewhere, for women and for men, will require a fundamental shift in societal and institutional perception of gender ‘norms’.” (footnote 2) In order for there to be a difference, action needs to be taken. The notion that society and culture has on what represents science doesn’t need to be portrayed the same way.

Bias Training
There are many recommended strategies for society to increase representation in STEM that focuses on the elimination of bias. The AAUW states that the best way to eliminate stereotypes is by challenging cultural stereotypes that lead to biases.(footnote) This targets stereotypes that deem a certain gender or race to be superior to another. Another major recommended strategy is analyzing behavior. Specifically, there is a need to raise awareness to the effects of resulting behaviors and attitudes. It is important to challenge the behaviors and attitudes that result in stereotypical mindsets against women and POC in STEM. (footnote) It is recommended to incorporate implicit bias statements in order to connect those to a commitment to gender equality and better representation of POC in the field of STEM.(footnote)

Protective Factors
Those in STEM fields have recognized that there is an extensive history of poor representation of women and people of color in STEM and are working to close the gap. Addressing this issue requires a coherent and sustained effort across multiple fronts. Many would argue that single intervention does not work, but that sustainable and strategic reform in education, work place, and within our communities would put our theory in to practice. Transforming our perception of STEM in the early education years for students of color necessitates celebration of the distinct contribution that women and people of color bring to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.

For Educators
While many teachers are highly dedicated to reducing the race gap and actively striving to create equal opportunities in their classrooms, they can actually contribute to the STEM race gap. It is important that teachers understand that their actions impact students’ futures more than they may realize. The journal article “What You Need to Know About the STEM Race Gap”, states, “Teachers alone cannot tackle systemic issues of racism, sexism, and ethnocentrism in STEM.” Cindy Hoisington at Edtopia writes. “But addressing our own biases and enriching our repertories of STEM teaching behaviors is a manageable goal and has the potential to dramatically benefit not only our individual students but the STEM community as a whole” (White 2018). A nonprofit based out of Harvard, Project Implicit, creates tests to help people better understand subconscious biases and stereotypes they may have. Requiring educators to take this test to shine light on any subconscious biases they may have can help educate them on ways to be intentional, push these biases aside, learn from them, and overall better support all students.

Role models
One of the most promoted solutions is the need for role models. While both female and male role models can be effective in recruiting women in STEM fields there is a lack of role models of color to mentor POC in STEM fields. When individuals have someone to look up to that looks like them, they are more willing to stay in the field and develop a sense of belonging. In the Journal article, Girls and Women in STEM: STEMIng the Tide and Broadening Participation in STEM Careers, the authors stated, “Academic departments should recruit senior women in STEM fields to present their technical work as part of department colloquia, brown-bags, and other special events, providing opportunities for these speakers to meet and mentor students.” (Dasgupta and Stout, 25) Opportunities to engage and connect with individuals in STEM allows for excitement to be a part of this community. The sooner individuals have opportunities to engage in STEM the more connected they will be in the field. Providing individuals with hands-on experiences and role models will allow for students to stay engaged in the field. According to the journal, Reimagining the Pipeline, "Undergraduates at research-intensive institutions are often more exposed to and influenced by researchers who serve as a de facto role models than are students at minority-serving institutions. Accordingly, the influence of research on undergraduate education at research-intensive institutions is greater than that of minority-serving institutions." (Allen-Ramdial and Campbell, 615) This shows the need for increased access to research opportunities allowing minority students to have opportunities to engage with STEM early on.

Mentors
Mentors provide students the academic and social support they need to succeed in STEM. In the journal article, Black Undergraduate Women and their Sense of Belonging in STEM predominantly White institutions, it states, “Researchers, administrators, and policymakers seeking to encourage the success and belongingness of Black women STEM students should consider developing not just faculty of color hiring and recruitment initiatives but also recruit more Black women so that women like the ones presented can see reflections of themselves.” (Dortch & Patel, 213) When individuals see themselves in these fields they are more likely to feel as if they belong and can succeed.

Black women studying and applying themselves to STEM related careers are highly underrepresented within Universities and research institutes. According to Dortch and Patel (2017) Black Undergraduate Belonging, “Black women are avoided by their fellow peers and faculty members, excluded from insider know-how on how to excel in their fields, often dissuaded from continuing in the sciences by their professors, and face countless types of other discrimination even upon their arrival.” (Dortch and Patel, 203) Black women who are short of experiences and encounter a lack of belonging find it much harder to succeed in schools, jobs, and life in general. Hermeneutic phenomenology was one method in response to these observations. Hermeneutic phenomenology is the idea of gathering data based on others experiences and reflectie activities. It temporarily prevents opinions and research bias because the evidence is clearly subjective and contextual. (Dortch and Patel, 205) Following the study, researchers concluded racial and gendered microaggressions influence black women and their sense of belonging. As a matter of fact, black women with same-race role models and positive experiences within their peer groups felt a beneficial change regarding their impression of acceptance. (Dotch and Patel, 212)

Women in the workforce are also constantly underrepresented. Women in their position of employment are harassed and discriminated against due to workplace bias and stereotypes. Based on Madeline Heilman and the collected data from her experiments, people tend to view working women in STEM fields as either competent or likable, but not both. This is known as the double bind. It is important that jobs take action in order to break some, if not all, these kinds of stereotypes. Some recommended actions from the article included: raising awareness, focusing on competence, and creating clear criteria for success and transparency. (AAUW Why So Few - Workplace Bias)

Dortch, Deniece, and Chirag Patel. "Black undergraduate women and their sense of belonging in STEM at predominantly White institutions." NASPA Journal About Women in Higher Education 10.2 (2017): 202-215.

For Learner
Being aware of the collection of factors that contribute to low representation of women in STEM fields explains the phenomena of the leaky pipeline and can reverse some of its effects for STEM learners. Interpretations and perceptions of people of color participating in STEM environments easily become skewed due to factors including stereotype threat, lack of mentors, and comparative advantage. Despite the multitude of these factors, people of color still show interest in thriving in these environments. The major findings from I AM STEM, a community-based STEM program designed specifically for Black girls and women, indicate that Black women ignited interest in learning STEM fields after exploring their own formal and informal experiences with STEM using critical race methodology. The dynamic and complex perspectives and experiences gave women who participated in I AM STEM a space to formulate new understandings and create better connections between their everyday lives and the environment in which they learn STEM. The major findings confirm that Black women have a luster for learning STEM after being given a space to explore their unique experience with STEM after historically being silenced and misrepresented.

Organized Efforts
There is a growing number of organizations whose goal is to increase diversity in STEM fields by encouraging girls and women to thrive in STEM environments. An example of one of these organizations is Girls Who Code. Their mission is to successfully close the gender gap in new entry-level tech jobs by 2030. Girls Who Code focuses their work not only on gender diversity but also on young women who are historically underrepresented in computer science fields, including African American/Black, Hispanic or Latina, Bi/ Multiracial, Native American/Alaskan, and Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, those who come from low-income backgrounds, specifically free and/or reduced lunch eligible, and those who have had a lack of exposure or access to computer science. Girls Who Code acknowledges and values the intersections of race/ethnicity, gender identity and expression, class, sexual orientation, ability, age, national origin, and religious/spiritual identities.

Another great example of organizations for the underrepresented is the Society for advancement of Chicanos/Hispanics and Native Americans in Science (SACNAS). SACNAS’s mission is to advance the success of Chicanos/Hispanics and Native Americans in securing advanced degrees, careers, and positions of leadership in STEM fields. The organization has been working to make sure that those most underrepresented in STEM have the support they need to attain advanced degrees, careers, and positions of leadership. SACNAS also often points out that diverse voices bring creative solutions to our world’s most pressing scientific problems and that building a national network that is innovative, powerful, and inclusive is necessary.