User:Cait.cowan

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=Militant Manhood=

Physical strength, aggression, and domination are a few of the characteristics associated with what society would define as being masculine. This idea of a “militant manhood” has served as the driving force behind the quest for expansion during the time period of Manifest Destiny, according to Amy Greenburg, author of “Manifest Manhood and the Antebellum American Empire”. On the other hand, these aggressive qualities are challenged by the opposing restrained manhood that values responsibility, domesticity, and a more temperate outlook. With the roles of men and women constantly changing, it is inevitable that the definition of what we consider “masculine” is going to adapt to the ever-changing environment. What is manhood? By definition, ‘manhood’ is defined as, “The state or time of being an adult male human. The composite of qualities, such as courage, determination, and vigor, often thought to be appropriate to a man"

History: Manifest Destiny (1836 – 1848)
According to James Oakes, “Manifest destiny [is] the belief that white Americans had a provincial right to as much of North America as they wanted, had been a core belief and policy since the founding of the republic" In other words, during the mid-nineteenth century, westward expansion only seemed natural as if it was a “divine” obligation. Because independence was won during the Revolution and reaffirmed during the War of 1812, the concept of freedom and equality fueled this time period. As seen through other events including the Northwest Ordinance, Indian treaties, the Transcontinental Treaty, the Monroe Doctrine of 1824, the Louisiana Purchase, and the Removal Act of 1830, it is no surprise that the white Americans during the mid-nineteenth century felt that it was their right to continue to expand. Not only was the Manifest driven by the optimism of nationalism and the quest for new territory, but served as a religious, cultural, economic, and racial war.

John O’Sullivan
American journalist, John O’Sullivan, was the man who created the word “manifest destiny”. Prior to 1845, this word was not a part of the American vocabulary, but further described this optimistic mindset. “[O]ur manifest destiny…to overspread the continent allotted by the Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions”, proclaimed O’Sullivan.

Second Great Awakening: Religious Fever
The Second Great Awakening was a Christian movement that began in 1800 and picked up popularity during the 1820’s and began to decline in the 1870’s. Described as “widespread religious turmoil”, this changed the American religious landscape. At the beginning of the revolution, the most dominant groups included Congregationalists (Puritans), Anglicans, and Quakers. When 1800 came around, other groups such as Baptists, Methodists, Unitarian, and Universalists groups began to form. With this new found religious enthusiasm, other aspects of American culture began to change as well.

Politics
Politics began changing during this period of Manifest Destiny as well, which in turn began to change how manhood was viewed. “On the simplist level, manifest destiny was a political slogan and a crass claim for property, a way of asserting that Americans wanted and would have the continent all the way to the pacific." With the changing expectations of manhood, came loose stereotypes. For example, “restrained” men were known to be apart of “all political parties, but the reform aspects of the Whig, Know-Nothing, and Republican parties held a special appeal. Whig men were more likely than Democrats to support the Woman's Rights movement, and they openly encouraged female participation in their campaigns.” On the other hand, the Democratic Party seemed to be more appealing to the “militant” man based on the party’s beliefs and values.

American Progress: Expansionism
Manifest destiny marked the beginning of domesticity. As seen in John Gast’s 1872 painting, “American Progress”, is the well-known artistic representation of all that the Manifest Destiny was. This painting is described as, “An allegorical female representation of: American Progress (with the "star of empire" on her forehead) leads the pioneers westward, schoolbook in hand, along with the great technological advances of the era, the telegraph and railroad. Wild animals flee as she nears, and bare-breasted Native-American women make way for a white family in a covered wagon." Oddly enough, Gast’s use of a woman figure as the focus of the painting emphasizes that women are responsible for the transformation of America from the wilderness into a society of civilization. Although some people, including Gast, looked at the era of American Progress from the point of view of the shift from “heroic individualism” to the importance of in-home domesticity, not all people felt this way. Many Americans justified their drive for expansionism because it was not domestic. Men looked at territorial expansion as a way to reaffirm his masculinity in the form of arms and war. In fact, in an 1849 poem written by Francis Lieber, suggests that many Americans felt that expansionism needed to be done through physical force, in this case when it came to the Central American Canal: “Prone to people, to subdue, and to bind the lands with iron, or to force them through." Clearly, many Americans envisioned expansionism done through the use of force and arms. In fact, filibustering was one way in which these individuals felt it necessary to expand. Filibustering is the action of private United States armies invading foreign countries without the approval of the US government.

During this time period of Manifest Destiny, it is evident that gender roles were beginning to shift. With this shift of gender roles, came the alteration of a “militant” versus “restrained” manhood mindset.

Militant Manhood vs. Restrained Manhood
Originally defined as “fighting or warring; having a combative character; aggressive person or party; etc” .the role of a “militant” man was beginning to change because of the changing appropriate male-behavior that American culture was beginning to embrace. Changes in American society and culture transformed the meanings of manhood and even womanhood during the 1830-1840’s dramatically. These changes include,“mass immigration from Europe; the emergence of evangelical Christianity in the Second Great Awakening; the end of bound labor in the North; the beginnings of a ‘market revolution’ including specialization in agriculture and dependency on wider markets in even rural areas; changes in print technology; the decline of the artisan work- shop; increasing class stratification; and universal white manhood suffrage." Because of these domestic changes, many historians believe that time period instated a “crisis of manhood”. In fact, “In the early years of the republic, men had grounded their own sense of manliness in virtue, honor, and public service. By the late nineteenth century, these ideas were being supplanted by a new vision of ‘primitive masculinity'." In other words, with these cultural changes, what was considered militant-like manhood took on the façade of more of a “restrained” manhood where masculinity was more focused on reliability, braveness, and moral uprightness. However, martial men were quite the opposite. Martial men during this time period were known for rejecting these moral standards and could often times be described as ruffians. For instance, martial men were known for pushing the importance in physical strength and domination. Generally speaking, they did not support the domesticity and morality of women. “Martial men believed that the masculine qualities of strength, aggression, and even violence, better defined a true man than did the firm and upright manliness of restrained men. At times they embraced the ‘chivalry’ of knighthood or other masculine ideals from the past” . In other words, it was necessary for one to be considered a “militant” man that he live up to the expectations of being strong, intimidating and protective.

19th Century Manhood
Between the two decades of the United States and Mexican war and the Civil War, Amy Greenburg focuses on the expansionism in the form of filibustering in the most aggressive context. “In the nineteenth century, a filibuster was not a long-winded speech in the Senate. Filibustering referred to private armies invading other countries without official sanction of the U.S. government. Filibusters were men who on their own initiative went to war against foreign nations, often in the face of open hostility from their own governments. The term also was used for the invasions themselves” Although these events were illegal, they continued to be executed without consequences. Due to the fact that the United States had just won a large territory during the United States and Mexican war, it is odd that the drive for expansionism was as aggressive as it was. As outdated as the “connection between masculinity and national strength” is, “well before the period under consideration in this study people at war have critiqued their opponents in gendered terms” It is evident that the popularity of expansionism during the 19th century was driven by personal reasons, as seen through the private filibustering excursions conducted during this time period. In fact, “Many Americans still believe that the superiority of their nation resides in its military power and the machismo of its leadership, while U.S. political leaders justify preemptive military strikes against foreign governments on the basis of the superiority of American culture, economics, and political forms” Thus, it is no surprise that during the nineteenth century, "To the extent that aggression is a manhood-restoring tactic, however, it is likely that men use it strategically by calculating when it is most likely to pay off successfully." . In this case, men took advantage of the circumstances of war during this time in order to act in an aggressive manner. During the 19th century, manhood was clearly defined by the manly stereotype that continues to come to mind when “manhood” is thought of.

20th Century Manhood
The twentieth century was a time period of transformation in American history as well. Dominating this decade with war, both World War I and World War II had a lasting impact on the United States. In addition, the Great Depression of the 1930’s and the cultural revitalization of the roaring 20’s, the Golden Age of the 50’s, the hippie influence of the 60’s-70’s, the Space Race, and the Civil Rights Movement, the 20th century was certainly a rollercoaster of change. With all of these ongoing changes, gender roles continued to alter; what was considered appropriate “manly” behavior transformed with the times.

21st Century Manhood
Even within the first 11 years of the 21st century, manhood has changed drastically. The typical role of “working father” and “stay at home” mother has changed. In fact, according to The Globe and Mail’s article, “Number of Stay-At-Home Dads On the Rise”, “The number of stay-at-home dads has been enjoying a gradual ascent, reaching 60,000 in 2011, up from 20,000 in 1976. Men now account for 12 per cent of stay-at-home parents, compared with only 4 per cent in 1986." What was once seen as strictly a woman’s job, has began to switch roles. The father figures are becoming more “domesticated” in the way of staying at home. This changes the idea of “militant” manhood because men who stay at home aren’t seen as displaying the stereotypical qualities a man should according to this theory of manhood.

In addition, the LGBT movement has continued to alter this idea of militant manhood because of the stereotypes the gay male population has acquired. In fact, gay activists have filed complaints against certain media coverage because they feel how the media portrays the LGBT community is not accurate. According to ABC News article, “Gay Stereotypes: Are They True?”, “the media focus on the extreme, the more flamboyantly feminine men and very masculine women”. When John Stossel and Genna Binkley asked Carson Kressley and Ted Allen, two stars of Queer Eye, the men attempted to explain the feminine stereotypes homosexual males have been given. “It's that you're obsessed with fashion, and that you tan a lot and that you color your hair. The stereotypes are not always true. Not all gay men are super-stylish. Not all straight men are bad dressers.”

The definition of what is considered masculine continues to evolve. An aggressive militant manhood and a restrained manhood have begun to alter and even combine into a new form of manhood. Only time will tell how gender roles are defined in the future.