User:Calthinus/Ethnoreligious Dimensions and Albanian National Identity

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=Albanian National Identity=

First attested in writing in the 1800s

... but may have predated this in folklore, etc

Mid-Ottoman period : Shqiptar replaces Arber

References to Albanians as a 'people' or 'nation' in early Ottoman or pre-Ottoman period by travelers -- see Elsie

Albanians "used to have a literature of their own" -- cited in Elsie

Albanian elaboration in these older times is unknown, in modern times shaped by the context of Ottoman disintegration and the multiconfessional demographics of the Albanian people, who were defined firstly by language and culture rather than religion

History and Ethnicity
Dominant is "autochtonous" identity based on Illyrian continuity

A different version of the autochtonous is the "Epirote" continuity theory which links Albanians and Greeks as brothers, advocated by Frasheri

Most theories of Albanians not being autochtonous (Caucasian, Italian, Greek, etc theories) are held by foreign nationalists of neighboring countries or foreign academics, and thus play no role in identities of Albanians themselves. Thracian theory viewed more ambivalently. Albanian nationalists retaliate by painting Greeks and Serbs in particular as non-autochtonous (Serbs as "Slav invaders", Greeks as either Slavs or somehow "Asiatic")-- however these theories are not mainstream either. Albanian Aromanians as "Romanized Illyrians".

Albania as a land of religious tolerance/ Multiconfessional Albania
Claim to unique tolerance in the Balkans (cite), in Europe (cite) or even the world (cite)

Tolerant Albania ideology has been exported and adopted by foreigners including the Pope.

Is it true? Debated.

Cite polls: Albanian Muslims and Christians have more positive views of each other than neighbors in Balkans

Cite: Higher rate of interfaith marriage (but is this interfaith or interfaithbackground?)

Albanian Muslims and Orthodox Christians less observant than neighboring coreligionists of different ethnicities (not true of Catholics? At least no citation)

However different faiths do have much more complicated dynamics in their relations with each other and with national identity

Some degree of historical religious tension (Shkoder, historical and even current resistance to interfaith marriage especially in Kosovo, etc)

Nevertheless Multiconfessional Albania is the dominant ideology with respect to faith (not sure if citation is possible for this one however, may need to remove)

Different versions: Albania of all faiths versus...

Albania of three faiths (Catholic, Orthodox, Muslim) -- much more rarely Sunni, Bektashi, Christian

Albania of four faiths - Sunni, Orthodox, Bektashi, Catholic

Albania of four faiths with many irreligious people too

Albania of all faiths

Interfaith solidarity strengthened by common experience of suppression among religious population of different faiths in Albania proper.--- Babuna, etc

In Kosovo : majority also supports this view but important minority perform "Muslim-Albanian synthesis" (see below) perhaps due to long running conflict with Orthodox Serbs

In Macedonia : Very significant numbers link national identity and religion. Unclear which is dominant. Context in Macedonia: Albanian-Macedonian conflict and mixed nature of Muslim population, i.e. heavy intermarriage with Turks and

Muslim Slavs, identity switching on censuses.

Feja Shqiptare eshte Shqiperia
Famously elaborated by Pashko Vasa

Faction of Albanian nationalists viewed religion as divisive and disruptive to Albanian national identity

Support founding of Albania as secular state and support multiconfessional identity, but suspicious of clergy and religion

These grew in parallel with secularist and laicist movements in Western Europe (France, Germany etc had similar situation) and also Azerbaijan, Turkey. Adapted to Albanian situation

1920s-1930s : "Te rinjte", rejected religion as old-fashioned and backwards, and in particular were suspicious of Sunni Islam and Orthodox Christianity for alleged sympathies to foreign powers (Turkey, Greece).

Context: actual significant historical influence of conservative Ottomanism and Hellenism upon fractions of Albanian Sunni and Orthodox populations in relevant regions.

Note that most of the supporters of this version of secularism were themselves from Muslim or Orthodox

Came into conflict with both traditionalists and supporters of multiconfessional Albania (the latter probably being the majority?)

Communist era: Secularist faction gains upper hand decisively.

Most Communists are of Muslim Southern background.

All religions banned in 1967, religious names banned, buildings demolished or converted to museums etc.

All religions suffer but asymmetrically-- Northern Catholics and Sunnis in particular singled out.

Catholics painted by communism as fascist, backwards, misogynistic, and worst of all a fifth column

Sunnis backwards and treacherous, "oriental"

Also Muslim Bektashis do not get the same treatment and were initially favored by Communists, though eventually they too were oppressed

Orthodox Christianity also stamped out but like Bektashis seen as being historically "progressive" (unsure why?)

When Communism falls Orthodox Christianity's revival is the earliest.

Modern Albanian-Secular National Identity
AFter the fall of communism: Albanian Secular-National (or even Atheist-National) synthesis remains performed by a part of the population, especially left-wingers and southerners

Orthodox and Sunni religions still "suspicious" -- Orthodox linked with Greece and Serbia, Sunnis linked with Turkey and worse, international terrorism. Some degree of Islamophobia

Influence of Western atheism-- communism abandoned as an ideology, atheism or secularism now seen as progressive force to help gender equality, social justice and so forth.

Influence of French (or Turkish?) laicism --- banning of religious symbols in some public places. This more resembles the laicism of France and Turkey than other forms of secularism (i.e. those seen in the US, Canada sans Quebec and Senegal) which do not seek to remove religious differences from the public sphere.

Albania as the "most secular" or "most atheist" Balkan country and therefore the most progressive

Especially common among hte young.

Difference between Bosnia and Albania -- in Bosnia young are more religious, in Albania they are less

Macedonia and Kosovo more like Bosnia, but in Kosovo there is some presence of Albanian-secular synthesis, at small numbers -- Bosnia

Secularism as a way to maintain religious harmony by not letting religious differences play important roles in identity-- does not always mean atheism--- "soft secular identity" that is not hostile to religions themselves

The soft secular identity can easily coexist and mix with the multiconfessional identity.

"Hard atheist identity" alternative-- claims national supremacy over Christianity and Islam, both being portrayed as "oriental", "backward" and "foreign".

Albania seen as having originally been "humanistic" in outlook in Ancient times, before imposition of first Christianity, then Islam. Atheism is thus presented as a return to Albania's initial enlightened identity as part of an enlightened civilized West-- hence Occidentalism

Muslim "Oriental" National Identity
Most common in Macedonia

Less so but still present in Kosovo

Present in Albania by introduction from Kosovo and Macedonia

Promoted in all three by foreign Islamic preachers

Breaks from pro-Western European identity and proclaims Albania as a fundamentally Muslim and Eastern entity.

Conflicts with Greece and Serbia compared to Western colonialism

Portrays West as "homosexual" -- see article on Letnica near Pogradec

Protests Islamophobia, and also any degree of sidelining Islam's dominance in national identity

Suspicious of Albanian Christians as fifth column

Some young Albanians in all three countries went to fight in Syria

Most extreme version-- negates Albanian national identity in favor of the Ummah

Historical context : Some Muslim Albanians opposed independence from the Ottoman empire, identified as Ottomans

Opposed Latin script

Have historically claimed Skanderbeg (and now Mother Teresa) should not be Albanian national heroes as they fought/worked for Christianity

Uprisings in 1910, etc, and then again against Prince William in Central Albania.

Many Muslims of Central Albania opposed these actions, however. Vickers argues vast majority.

Nowadays, a mostly insignificant ideology in Albania proper and Kosovo. Some following in Macedonia (see protests around the Lake Smederovo killings).

PM Edi Rama denounced Macedonian Albanian protesters who link Islam and Albanian-ness

Parts of the population in Greece and Serbia may perceive many Albanians as being "Muslim fanatics" in line with a stereotypical version of ideology

"Soft" Muslim-Albanian Synthesis
Supports multiconfessionalism but claims primacy of Muslim identity in Albanian national identity formation (and or preservation)

Much more mainstream than "hard" "Orientalist" cousin, and much less foreign.

Claims that without the Ottoman 'occupation' and/or the conversion of large numbers of Albanians to Islam, Albanians would not have survived as a nation

Would have been assimilated by neighbors

Claim that similarly, the Slavic invasion "saved" Albanians from Romanization --- Kaleshi

Large number of Slavic placenames used as proof.

Emphasizes the historical Hellenist party among Albanian Orthodox in the South

May suspect modern-day Albanian Orthodox of sympathies for Greece

Some continuation of Ottoman era attitudes toward Christians

Does not refer much to the distinction between Sunnis and Bektashis

Protests negative attitude towards Islam found in parts of the Albanian population

Catholic Albanians -- seen as marginal, clannish, etc. Said to have needed literate numerous Muslim Albanians for their salvation

Christian and atheist minorities still viewed as valuable parts of the Albanian nation.

Claims that historically Muslim countries were more tolerant of minorities than Christian countries

Atheism linked to Communism; Bektashis claimed as Muslims where sect shouldn't matter. Irreligious people often claimed as Muslims too since most come from Muslim or Orthodox background.

Has both "Orientalist" and "Occidentalist" subsets.

"Muslim-Albanian Occidentalist Synthesis"-- Albania is a fundamentally European, Western and also Muslim country and there is no contradiction here. In fact Albania is a valuable "bridge" between Western and Islamic worlds.

Regional differences: Muslim-Albanian synthesis present but small minority position in Albania proper (more common in North and East than South and West)

More common in Kosovo

Most common of all in Macedonia.

Other justifications include the simple numerical majority of Muslims (or at least those of Muslim backgrounds) especially once Kosovo and Albanian-inhabited areas of Macedonia are included in mental "Albanian space".

Protests against perceived attempts at Christianization -- missionaries, the cult of Mother Teresa, use of holy sites in Shkoder, etc.

Albanian-Bektashi identity synthesis
Advocated by Naim Frasheri

To overcome religious differences through mass conversion

Seen as compromise between Christianity and Islam

Seen as most progressive religion

Seen as appropriate for Albania's culture, history and geography

Skanderbeg claimed as Bektashi in soul

Other faiths seem to also view Bektashism as most "progressive" (and left-wing)

Also viewed as most progressive historically by Communists (many of whom were from Bektashi origins)

Protests about low number of Bektashis in the last Albanian census, claimed falsification

Protests that Bektashis are not recognized in Kosovo or Macedonia

Tetovo tensions between Bektashis and Sunnis over control of former tekkes

Minority of Bektashis in Albania view themselves not as Muslims but as something syncretically half-way between Islam and Christianity

Pride that Bektashism best preserves Albanian folk rituals.

Sunni Albanian Identities
No evidence of a specifically Sunni Albanian identity emerging-- most Sunnis identify as Muslims, a category that also includes Bektashis.

No serious tensions between Bektashis and Sunnis except in Macedonia

Tetovo Teqe controversy.

Generic Christian-Albanian Synthesis
Christianity viewed as authentic, original Albanian religion

Ottoman Empire viewed as violent and oppressive, Albanians as having struggled patriotically against it

Muslim Albanians viewed as innocent victims of forced or at least coerced Islamization

Difference from Serbian Christian Synthesis-- no hostility toward Muslims, but still claim of national primacy over them

Many adherents are in fact of Muslim background -- Kadare, etc.

Most common in Albania itself, in the South and in heavily Catholic areas in the North, and among Kosovar Catholics

Promotion of conversion (or "reversion") to Christianity

Converts in Albania from Muslim background

Converts in Kosovo to Catholicism.

Claim of Crypto-Catholicism

De Rapper: Christians have "higher culture" than Muslims supposedly

"Culture" attained from West

Promote "Return to Europe" / "European Renaissance"

Worries about influence of foreign Muslim missionary activity

Historical notes of Muslim factions that opposed independence, were sympathetic to Turkey

Claims Christianity preserved Albanian national identity in the Middle Ages from Slavicization

...and from Turkification, by reminding Muslim Albanians of their origins

Communist rule compared to Ottoman rule, Enver Hoxha seen as "Muslim"

Hostile to King Zogu and the historical interests of the post-Ottoman Muslim landed class which was against land reforms (thus an obstacle to the objectives of landless Albanians, among whom Catholics and Orthodox were disproportionately represented thanks to the privileged position of Sunni Muslims under Ottoman rule)

Albanian-Catholic synthesis
Catholicism as "true religion" of Albanians

All Albanians were "originally Catholic"

Catholic Albanians as having preserved more of "Illyrian civilization"

Catholic Albanian dialects held to be more archaic

Claims Orthodox were preferred by Ottomans, who were harsher against Catholics

Claims in academic literature of conversion of Catholics in South and Central Albania to Orthodoxy

Albania as Antemurale Christianis

Albanian-origin popes who defended Catholicism in Albania (don't remember reading any source for feeling toward them, though)

Orthodox suspected of being pro-Greek or pro-Serb, Sunnis of being pro-Turkish or pro-Arab

Ottomans seen as being Muslim oppressors who impoverished Catholics and drove them into mountains in the North

Historical frustrations with Albanian post-independence gov't that was dominated by Muslims and was perceived as uninterested in helping poor Albanians

Tensions in Shkoder and Gjakova-- cities that came to be dominated by Muslims, but early modern urbanization saw heh arrival of Catholics from hinterland.

Tensions between their descendants remain today, and they don't marry and still speak different dialects

Albanian-Orthodox National Synthesis
Orthodoxy seen as being "original Albanian religion"

Catholicism seen as imposed by invaders in Middle Ages

Defends Orthodox Albanians against claims of being a fifth-pillar by holding htem up as the "purest Albanians" who resisted Turkish and later Greek attempts to change their identities

Historical frustrations towards the independent Albanian government, dominated by Muslims, that didn't carry out land reforms

Orthodox Albanians as the "most cultured" -- de Rapper

Pride and emphasis on contributions of Orthodox Albanians to national development -- Fan Noli, Sotiri, Asdreni, Veqilharxhi and so on.

Claims Bektashis are "Crypto-Orthodox"

Claims Sunnis of certain regions are/were "Crypto-Orthodox" (Gramsh, Elbasan)

Claims Catholics are "confused Orthodox" in some regions

View Uniates in Elbasan as lost brothers

Attempts to revive Albanian Orthodox identity among Albanophone Orthodox of Greece and Macedonia, with unclear success

Specifically Albanian Orthodox identity that not only claims superiority over Muslims/Catholics but also distances itself from other ethnicities-- Albanian Orthodox in Lunxheri will not marry Vlachs (de Rapper)

Hellenism among Albanian Orthodox
Organized Hellenist activity among Albanian Orthodox in the South preceded Albanist activity, giving Hellenism a head start

Hellenist school system set up by Greek agents in 19th century, which even many Muslims (Frasheri, etc) attended Albanians as heirs to Peracles, Ancient Epirotes

Greek propaganda claimed Albanian Orthodox of Southern Albania (i.e. regions surrounding Gjirokaster and Korcha, "Vorioipiros") were "Albanophone Greeks" (as were Orthodox Vlachs, Slavs also "Greeks")

Status of Orthodox Albanians elsewhere unclear in Greek propaganda

Majority national identity among Albanian Orthodox in their various regions in late Ottoman period is unclear and impossible to ascertain -- De Rapper, Lunxheri

Regional difference: Southeastern versus Southwestern Albania. Southeastern Albania has more Albanian nationalists, Southwestern more Hellenists -- Psomas

Southwestern Albania also has more actual Grecophones, in Himare, Dropull

Albanian Orthodox supporters of Albanian national identity first organize to promote Albanian writing and literacy in earlier stages of the 19th century, but efforts pick up steam in the last few decades

Orthodox Albanian nationalists set up their own smaller school network to rival the Greek one which teach the Albanian language and nationalism

Situation around independence and World War I: younger generations more likely to be Albanian nationalists, older generations more favorable to Greece

Assassination of the Greek metropolitan in Korcha

Albanists denounce Greek identity as backward, followers tend to be conservative (just like Muslim Ottomanists)

Even despite pitting Greek and Bulgarian nationalisms against each other, Ottoman authorities favor the Greek side in Southern Albania and initially refuse to recognize Albanian Orthodox as separate community from Greeks. This was part of a policy of divide-and-rule aiming at the discouragement of the emergence of a unified Albanian nationalism, as the Ottoman authorities were struggling to keep their empire together -- cite Glenny, Balkans, for all this

... even after they had recognized the Vlachs as a separate group. -- grab citation from Aromanians page

Albanians were the only people in the Balkans, and Albanian Orthodox the only Orthodox in the Empire, who were forbidden from teaching in their own language. As a result the main contributors to Albanian literacy, especially in the South, were schools run by Greeks --- Glenny, The Balkans, page 152.

But they eventually do very late (1908?)

Situation around Korcha and Permet, as per British and American reports in World War II era (Psomas, de Rapper, Draper): Albanian identity is held by dominant group. Pro-Greek feelings held by less than a third of the population in Korcha (cited in Draper).

Situation in Lunxheria (de Rapper): internal strife between pro-Greek and pro-Albanian factions. Both sides try to use official positions to expel families who adhere to the other. Pro-Albanian families flee to elsewhere in Albania or to America, pro-Greek families flee to Greece. Ultimately Albanian side wins out, some Albanian families return, and Lunxheria as "pure Albanian Orthodox" region takes hold with Communism. Many Communists come from Lunxheria

Psomas: Younger generations drift out of Greek influence and come to oppose Greek aspirations in the area

Greek school network shut down by independent Albanian state.

Situation in Himare: Large numbers of Greek speakers who are pro-Greek.

In Himare: this continues to the modern day.

However Albanophone villages like vuno seem to be unclear. Need more sources on these.

Situation in Tepelena, Myzeqeja, Vlora, Berat, Elbasan etc: Unclear. Need sources. Assumed at least passively pro-Albanian-- but oddly these communities seem to have produced fewer famous Rilindas than those in Korcha and Lunxheria, despite comparable numbers (especially high concentration in Myzeqe). Notably these regions were less literate however (cite-- emergence of albanian literacy)-- ironically due to the lack of Greek schools in these regions.

Situation in Chameria: Some Albanian nationalist Rilindas who are Orthodox come from here but it seems Greek side may have had upper hand, despite role of Suliotet in Albanian nationalism (though also Greek nationalism). More sources necessary. Vickers-- some evidence of a double identity. Nowadays Albanophone Orthodox call themselves "Shqiptar" when speaking Albanian among themselves but Greek when speaking to outsiders.

Arvanite communities faraway from Albania -- Greek sentiment vastly predominates. But a few authors advocate for "Greek-Albanian" national union.

Situation in Albanian diaspora: Albanian nationalism quickly becomes dominant (Psomas).

Situation in Reka: Contender is not Greek nationalism but first Yugoslav and then Macedonian Nationalism. Region produced a number of Orthodox Albanian Rilindas; in Yugoslavia those of them who did not identify as Macedonian were punished for doing so (not sure about the sourcing for this one though as the source is Albanian). Nowadays-- attempts to revive Albanian national identity

Psomas notes: in independence era, it is likely majority of Albanian Orthodox were pragmatic and moderate, and supported neither Hellenism nor Albanian nationalism

Some evidence of preference for Ottoman rule among Albanian Orthodox too.

Nowadays, de Rapper: Albanian Orthodox (in Lunxheri) see themselves as patriotic pure Albanians and any deviation from this is attacked as being "filogrek"

Rehabilitation of holy sites claimed by more than one sect
Tetova -- Tekke controversy

Shkodra

Gjakova

Claims of overrepresentation of Christianity
Mother Teresa, naming of public places etc -- Imam in Shkodra lodges complaint

In historiography

Islamophobia
Islamophobic writings from Communist era

From the modern era: Hindrance to acceptance in West and importation of Western Islamophobia

Observant Muslims practicing in ways deemed "untraditional" seen as fifth-column

Islamophobia as anti-Kosovar (or anti-Macedonian Albanian) sentiment

Various Islamophobic statements and publications

Islamophobic slurs

Anti-Christian bigotry
In Macedonia : see Lake Smederovo and later protests, commentary by Rama

In Kosovo : Catholic-Sunni issues. Orthodox issues largely subsumed in Serb vs. Albanian context.

In Albania : foreign preachers, case of Voskopoja monastery vandalism

Accusation of Orthodox being fifth column, 'filogrek'. Continued issues with Greece (Himare, Omonia, etc) and the issue of Janullatos

Slurs against Christians

Anti-Irreligious sentiments
(no sources yet)

Accusations of fundamentalism
Berisha and DP accused of "Islamic fundamentalism"

Socialists and Nano accused of "Orthodox fundamentalism"

Foreign missionaries
Christian groups come first

Muslim groups come later

Bribes to come to services

Viewed as threats by traditional faith clergy

Albanian population views foreign preachers, both Muslim and Christian, as extremist and threatening to national identity

Tensions over Catholic missionary activity in Kosovo

Orthodox conversions among Muslim Albanians as source of tension

Tensions over Sunni missionary activity in Bektashi communities

Albanian irredentism
Kosovo and Macedonian Albanians are overwhelmingly Muslim, with only small minorities (3%) of Catholics in Kosovo and even smaller Orthodox and Catholic minorities in Macedonia.

Kosovars and Macedonian Albanians are also seen as more religious and "fundamentalist" than Albanians from Albania proper

Some Albanians in Albania proper oppose Albanian irredentism for these reasons

Additionally Islamophobic sentiments are transferred to sentiments against Kosovars and Macedonian Albanians

The Cham Issue : Chams portrayed by communists as Muslim fundamentalist fascists, some tensions with Orthodox communities that ended up hosting them

Language
Plays crucial role in Albanian identity yet just like members of different faiths, speakers of different dialects have language ideologies that assert their dialects are (in addition to other things) "more Albanian"

Gheg as "more Albanian", "preserves more"

Northwestern Gheg spoken by Catholics as "most Albanian of all Gheg" as not influenced by Turkish, Greek, Slavic... true? Unsure.

Tosk rebuttal: Gheg (especially Kosovar and Macedonian) is more "Slavicized and Turkicized".

Tosk as "more civilized", "more patriotic" as more Rilindas wrote and spoke it.

New Albanian standard devised in Communism, a period of Tosk-domination, was chosen to be similar to the dialect of Dangellia, the home of the Frasheri family and numerous other Rilindas authors

Actual linguistic research: All Albanian dialects have huge amounts of foreign influence and the largest contributor is neither Greek nor Slavic nor Turkish but Latin, which plays no role in these debates. Dibra's dialect more Slavic influenced (true), Northeastern and Central regions have most Turkish influenced dialects, influence of Greek surprisingly small. However Greek, Turkish and Slavic influences played an important role for all dialects, though dwarfed by the older influence of Latin.

=Minority Identities=

Albanization
===