User:Calthinus/Ottoman regional religious policies

Various sources -- Minkov, etc -- Ottoman policy to Catholics did not match that applied to Orthodox, as Orthodox were, initially at least, once the Patriarchate had been subordinated, less often seen as disloyal. As a result Catholics are treated harsher, and Catholic areas in Hungary, Croatia, Bosnia, and Albania see high rates of both emigration and conversion, although there are notable differences between the four.

Hungary -- Protestantism is encouraged. Result is very heavy conversion (of Catholics) to Protestants. Also some degree of Islamization. When the Hapsburgs gain control, a lot of the Muslims flee South into Turkey, Bosnia or other regions that remained Ottoman, ultimately assimilating into the local Muslim populations. Meanwhile, the majority of the Protestants are reconverted to Catholicism in the Counter-Reformation. Bektashis also appear in Hungary (as in South Albania).

Croatia -- also sees heavy Islamization (up to a third of the population Islamized in some areas, such as parts of Lika and Slavonia). Muslim Croats disproportionately produce Ottoman statesmen. However when the Hapsburgs gain control they flee into remaining Ottoman territories.

Bosnia (see also Islamization in Bosnia)-- weak local "Bosnian church" has most of its adherents Islamized early on. Bosnia gets a Muslim plurality or majority very early on, perhaps the earliest case of very widespread indigenous conversion (as opposed to settlement of Muslims) of all the territories in the Balkans [check this though]. Islamized Hungarians, Germans and others also flee into Bosnia as the Hapsburgs advance, further increasing the Muslim majority. At some point converions halt in Bosnia, while Orthodox Vlachs and Serbs migrate in, leaving a mosaic of religions. Catholic Church establishes mission to support the Catholics, mainly in Herzegovina. Elaborate on interfaith relations.

Bosnia Krajina ("Turkish Croatia") -- surrounded on three sides by Croatia. Due to borderline status, Ottomans apply intense pressures to convert and proselytization. As a result, there is very heavy emigration and conversion rates, and the area ends up almost entirely Muslim (discussed in Glenny, use sources he cites).

Catholic Albanians -- North Albania, Central Albania and Kosovo (see also Islamization in Albania)-- not originally a border province, but is very unruly, especially the Catholics. After a failed revolt in the 1590s where help that was promised from Spain doesn't come, very high pressures such as enormous tax increases on Catholic population, in some cases coercion are used (grab sources from Albanian history pages, etc). "Conversion campaign" started in Reka and Elbasan in very late 16th century, then applied elsewhere. This leads similarly to high rates of emigration and conversion, but mountainous areas where the Ottomans struggle to assert their authority like Mirdita resist it successfully. Some Catholics instead convert to Orthodoxy. Shkoder and Ulqin become very heavily Muslim, becoming Muslim islands in a Christian sea, although in more modern eras the proportion of Christians rises again due to rural people migrating to the city. Area around like Shkoder largely becomes Muslim, i.e. like Kopliku, but countryside remains Catholic (or Orthodox in Slavic areas). One area of countryside does become Muslim though, in Eastern Shkoder district-- this area saw three Catholic dioceses competing for tithes, and the population is speculated by one English writer to have converted to Islam in disgust. Crypto-Christianity (laramans) also appears in many regions. Catholic church also sees its ecclesiastic structure collapse over this time, and whole regions are left with few priests, also helping Islamization process. First areas to gain Muslim majorities are Prizren, Opolje, Tetova, Kukes, etc, i.e. area around Korab. Reka-- Albanian Catholics convert to Orthodoxy. Has apparently has cases of forced conversion-- check source though. Originally mostly confined to urban centers like Shkoder and Elbasan (note Elbasan was originally mostly Orthodox but had some Muslim immigration too). In 17th century, Islamization gains ground in rural areas across Albania, Central and North. Report by Westerners that Muslims hate Istanbul as much as Christians, and Muslims are found revolting beside Christians in favor of the Austrians when war breaks out again. Lively Christian Albanian religious literature from people like Bogdani at this time, who advocate Albania outside Ottoman rule. Albanian pro-Austrian rebellion in North Albania and Kosovo supported by Bogdani, Raspasani and others is suppressed, reports of tons of Catholic Kosovars fleeing to Hungary and dying in droves do to sickness and hunger after the war. In early 18th century, Catholic Albanian descendants in Italy gain influence in the Papacy and intervene, starting Catholic mission to check Islamization process, and process is very significantly slowed down. At this point the geographical layout of religions in the Albanian North is left to be what it is today. Kraja (in Montenegro) -- Albanian Catholic population in part flees to Dalmatia, see Arbanasi. Gucia/Gusinje-- local Albanian population Islamized then Slavicized into already existing (?) Slavic Muslim population (need more sources on Guc/Gus). Peja, Gjakova-- crypto-Catholicism, with "conversions" (reversions in the late 19th century). Letnica, Stublla (in East Kosovo) -- also cases of Crypto-Catholicism, descendants of relatively recent Albanian arrivals from highlands that settled amongt Muslim Albanian population. Seeing example of Peja and Gjakova laramanet, some of them also try to (re/con)vert to Catholicism, but this time Ottoman authorities are afraid of a domino effect, and punish them, sending them to prison in Anatolia. Great Powers protest, Ottomans allow them to return but don't allow any more reversion among Kosovo laramans. Rugova- ambiguous status. Also attempts by Albanian and Italian Catholics to missionize to known laraman areas after independence, but new Yugoslav Republic (Kingdom of Serbs, Slovenes, Croats) is suspicious of these foreign Albanians and Italians (is it SYN to mention territory conflicts?), and doesn't allow it.

Albanian South and Central, among the Orthodox- Similar pressures placed on Albanian Orthodox to convert later, due to conflicts with Russia that saw pro-Russian revolts among Albanian Orthodox. Conversions also occur to gain access to trade, similar issues with church corrpuption and ecclesiastic decay, as well as the desire to escape huge taxes. Bektashism spreads and becomes rooted in many areas of the South, especially Skrapari, Dishnica, Tepelena, Mallakastra, Erseka, Kurveleshi, Vlora, etc. Important presence also in Gjirokaster, Korce, Dangellia/Permet, Leskovik, Pogradec, etc. Bektashis also gain foothold in certain central areas and northern areas -- Bulqiza, Kruja, Gjakova and Tetova. Halvetis in Tropoja, Kukes (L(j)uma only, not Lura), Devoll, Kurvelesh, Mallakaster, Libohove, Gjirokaster, Berat, etc. Peak of Islamization comes very late in the South-- in 18th or 19th (!) century, and only South Albania and Dobrudja see conversions at high rates at that time. Notable regions where Muslims attain majority very late, around 1875 -- Chameria (see Skendi, Chabej etc), and the city Gjirokaster (have cites for both of these), although in both areas there had been Muslim presence much earlier. Chameria-- saw taxes on Christians multiplied by 30-something percent (Zhelyazkova had this I think? Or was it Skendi). Crypto-Christianity also appears in former Orthodox areas, notably in Elbasan. Laberia -- widespread conversions in order to not starve during a famine, church was being the opposite of helpful. City of Vlora -- after war, conversion to Islam en masse because of fear of reprisals for backing foes of the Empire (somehow this doesn't happen in nearby Narta but sources don't seem to handle this-- look for this though). Berat -- conversion en masse though Orthodox minority remains in certain city districts, because the ecclesiastical structure was collapsing. Himara -- manages to escape direct rule by the Ottomans for most of the period, and therefore conversions are few and the area remains overwhelmingly Orthodox. Certain areas of the south like Borsh, etc -- conversion to Islam immediately followed up by raids on still Christian neighbors, during time of economic hardship (?? gotta check source on this one though, not sure remembering properly, could be SYN for second part here).

Greek Macedonia and Thrace -- About half of Meglenito-Vlachs, in city of Notia (Nanti) convert in 18th century, during period of famine. Surrounding "Pomak" areas had converted much earlier. After conversion they begin raiding still Christian Megleno-Vlach and Slav villages, i.e. the surrounding Meglen villages. Those Meglenians that stayed Christian flee Notia/Nanti (not sure which name to use...). In Rhodope mountains, conversions by Slav widespread early on -- later than Bosnians, but before Meglenians. Leads to emergence of Pomak identity. Exactly how this happened is disputed, Bulgarian authors say forced, others don't, confusing. Some ethnic Greeks also convert-- case of the Vallahades. In early 20th century, Muslims are deported from Greek Macedonia to Turkey, but not from Greek Thrace.

Macedonia as a whole (Greek Macedonia and North Macedonia) -- settlement and widespread conversion. In 18th century, similar to Albania (CHECK THE SIMILARITY STATEMETN FOR SYN), Muslims become majority. However, plagues that hurt the Muslim population more than the Christian (did sources explain why??) cause Christians to regain majority.

Crete -- isle conquered late, but widespread conversion followed. Previous period had seen strife between Catholics and Orthodox. Many local Christians convert during the conquest. In late 18th/early 19th century, Christians and Muslims are about equal, before the Muslim population starts declining due to conflict.

Cyprus -- settlement by Anatolian Turks, but local Catholics also convert on mass, and are Crypto-Christian for long period. Cypriot Muslims become known for secular nature nad lax adherence to Islamic rules.

South Greece -- majority of local Muslims are also Greek converts (cite Glenny). Some Albanians/Arvanites (not sure what to say here, don't want POV wars, but it seems no matter what I pick the page is screwed) also convert but most converts speak Greek. [No idea what happened to them. Some OR guesses. Can't include at the moment. ]

Anatolia -- before Patriarchate is subordinated, local Christians are made to convert en masse when regions are conquered. Last region to do so is Southern Marmara coast; Orthodox consort of the Sultan seems to still do "Christian things" with already half-Turkified converts though (last time I saw this source was 3.5 years ago :( Gotta find it again). After Patriarchate subordinated, Orthodox Christians overwhelmingly tolerated and large numbers remain on Western Coast especially Smyrna, as well as in Pontus (Greeks). Laz and Georgians in that area are overwhelmingly Islamized though.

Bulgaria -- not many sources here. Improve on that. Widespread Turkish settlement, some conversion too, more or less.

Dobrudja -- heavy settlement by Turks, later Crimean Tatars. Some degree of Islamization. Muslims later crowded out by Aromanian and Romanian settlers after Dobrudja becomes Romanian.

Romania -- no conversions as it was autonomous.

Montenegro -- see above. Some do become Muslim anyways though. See also Christmas Massacre.

Serbia -- need sources. Sandjak sees many conversions, Nish also gets a lot of Muslims. Albanian population near Nish overwhelmingly Islamized, some Turkish settlement, need sources on the Slavic population. Main reason in Sandjak is trade, apparently.