User:CapeVerdeWave/1926 San Liborio hurricane

The Great Nassau hurricane, also known as the second San Liborio hurricane, was an unusually powerful Atlantic hurricane for the month of July that caused catastrophic damage and tremendous casualties in The Bahamas, particularly in and near the capital Nassau, as well as additional fatalities and damages from the Greater Antilles to the Southeastern United States. The first named storm and hurricane of the busy 1926 Atlantic hurricane season, it developed a short distance east of the Lesser Antilles on July 22, becoming a hurricane the following day. On July 24 it struck southwestern Puerto Rico as a moderate hurricane, then weakened as it paralleled the northeastern coast of Hispaniola. As it neared the Turks and Caicos Islands, on July 25, it began to re-intensify, and by the time it reached The Bahamas a day later, it was a potent Category 4 hurricane with winds of 140 mph (220 km/h)—the strongest such observed in the month of July until 2005. After passing over or near Nassau, the cyclone began to lose intensity, and on July 28 impacted the First Coast of Florida with winds of 105 mph (165 km/h). Once inland, the storm quickly degenerated over the Southeastern United States, and became extratropical on July 31; it dissipated near the Great Lakes region a couple of days later.

The hurricane was at its deadliest and most destructive in the Caribbean and Bahamas, claiming as many as 347 lives there, though some estimates of the dead were higher. Heavy rainfall in Puerto Rico led to flash flooding that killed 25 people and caused $5 million in losses. Similar phenomena led to 54 fatalities, along with $3 million in damages, in the neighboring Dominican Republic. The worst to impact New Providence and the city of Nassau since 1866, the cyclone ravaged the Bahaman archipelago, destroying roughly 20% of the sponge fleet there, flattening entire communities on many of the islands, and causing as many as 400 fatalities. The impacts were so severe that many Bahamians were temporarily forced to migrate to the United States. Damage from the Miami and Havana–Bermuda hurricanes subsequently compounded recovery, adding over a hundred additional casualties. In the United States, particularly Florida, the storm caused comparatively modest damage, mainly to coastal structures, though heavy rainfall and tornadoes also attended the storm. Seven deaths were reported in the state of Florida, though high tides and prolific rains extended farther north, along the Southeastern coastline. In all, the storm killed as many as 486 people and inflicted at least $18.5 million in damages.

Meteorological history
At 06:00 UTC on July 22, a weak tropical storm, with maximum sustained winds of 40 mph (65 km/h), developed 200 miles (320 km) east of Barbados. Operationally, the cyclone was first noted 190 miles (305 km) farther northwest, near 14.5°N, -58.7°W, on the same date. Quickly strengthening, the cyclone headed generally west-northwestward, crossing the northern tip of Martinique. Entering the eastern Caribbean early on July 23, it became a minimal hurricane six hours later, and gradually intensified to its first peak of 105 mph (165 km/h) by 18:00 UTC. As it did so, the cyclone began turning northwestward, toward the southwestern coast of Puerto Rico, and made landfall over present-day Cabo Rojo National Wildlife Refuge early on July 24. At the time, it was equivalent to a Category 2 hurricane.

Over the next day, the cyclone crossed the Mona Passage and paralleled the northeastern coast of the Dominican Republic; in the meantime its winds decreased to 85 mph (140 km/h) due to interaction with Hispaniola. Early on July 25, however, a period of rapid deepening commenced: within 18 hours the cyclone successively attained winds of at least 111 mph (178 km/h)—equivalent to a major hurricane on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson scale—and then 130 mph (215 km/h), making it a Category 4 hurricane. At 00:00 UTC on July 26, the cyclone reached its estimated peak of 140 mph (220 km/h), with an estimated central pressure of 938 mb; this made it the strongest Atlantic hurricane on record in the month of July until Hurricanes Dennis and Emily in 2005.

During its peak the cyclone passed over The Bahamas as a powerful hurricane, though few meteorological observations were available near the storm's eye. Largely maintaining its force, the storm passed over or very close to the Bahamian capital Nassau. After passing New Providence, the cyclone began to gradually weaken and its forward speed decreased. By 06:00 UTC on July 27 the cyclone lost major-hurricane status and turned north-northwestward, nearing the eastern coast of Florida. Paralleling the Indian River, the storm continued to gradually weaken, and made landfall near New Smyrna Beach at 10:00 UTC on July 28. At the time, the storm featured a smaller-than-average radius of maximum wind and an estimated central pressure of 967 mb, both of which suggested winds of 105 mph (165 km/h).

After landfall, the storm quickly weakened and resumed a northwestward course. Eight hours after moving inland, the storm weakened to below hurricane status. A day later, after crossing Georgia, the cyclone degenerated into a tropical depression and headed westward over Alabama. Late on July 30, the depression began curving northward over Mississippi, and spent nearly three additional days heading northeastward. The system traversed the Mississippi and Ohio valleys before encountering the Great Lakes region. It became extratropical early on August 1 and dissipated over southern Ontario a day and a half later.

Preparations
On July 23 the United States Weather Bureau issued hurricane warnings for vessels at sea in the eastern Caribbean Sea, southeast of Puerto Rico. At 02:00 UTC on July 25 the Weather Bureau issued a tropical storm warning for the eastern coast of Florida from Jupiter Inlet to Key West. As the hurricane neared South Florida, the Miami-area crew of the 75 ft cruising yacht Cinnabar sought shelter in the Bimini Islands during an excursion there. Most residents of the Sea Islands evacuated inland.

Greater Antilles
The Weather Bureau office in San Juan measured peak winds of 66 mi/h, rainfall of 5.9 in, and a minimum atmospheric pressure of 29.62 inHg. Rainfall from the storm in Puerto Rico peaked at 14.41 in, in Río Grande. All the rivers in the south of Puerto Rico, including the Arecibo, Guacio, Loíza, Bayamón, La Plata, Yauco, Peñuelas, and Manatí, overflowed their banks. Losses in Puerto Rico totaled $5 million, and 25 fatalities were recorded. The storm caused F2-level wind damage in Puerto Rico, implying peak gusts of 113–157 mph (182–253 km/h); this in turn suggested that sustained winds of Category 2 intensity occurred on the island. At Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, rescuers located at least 54 dead by July 29. There the storm caused $3 million in losses, mainly due to flash flooding, as heavy rains caused watercourses to overflow their banks. Bridges were swept away, warehouses inundated, and ships damaged.

The Bahamas
As of August 1, reports suggested that the storm killed at least 146 people in the Bahamas, while 400 others in the colony were unaccounted for, 350 of whom were believed to have been lost at sea. Final estimates of the number of deaths in the Bahamas ranged as high as 400, though official counts ranged from 258–68. Nearly 100 vessels in the Bahamas were wrecked at sea, including 80 of the 400 vessels in the Bahamian sponge fleet, along with 60 watercraft in Nassau Harbour. The combined effects of this storm, the Miami hurricane, and the Havana–Bermuda hurricane created a food shortage and led to out-migration of sponge fishermen to Tarpon Springs, Florida. Many other Bahamians either flocked to Nassau seeking work or sought temporary refuge with relatives in Florida.

Out Islands
On the Abaco Islands the cyclone destroyed all seawalls and wharves, structures in reach of which were washed out as well. Most settlements were inundated with 4 + 1/2 ft or more of seawater, and main thoroughfares were blocked for many days by fallen trees. At Cherokee Sound seven men were killed on land, in addition to several other fatalities at sea. One death and losses in excess of ₤2,000 were reported from Marsh Harbour, where all trees, a schoolhouse, three churches, and numerous dwellings were downed. The majority of three-masted schooners in the vicinity were ruined. Three fishing smacks from Cherokee Sound were destroyed as well, resulting in five drownings. A fourth schooner also beached on the western side of Great Abaco. The storm also destroyed many homes at Hope Town. On Acklins the hurricane destroyed more than 427 houses, leaving the majority of the population homeless. Many residents perished in the storm surge that ravaged the island, and the survivors were reportedly famished. At Snug Corner the storm wrecked all but one of the 92 houses. A future governor-general of the Bahamas, Clifford Darling, then four years old, rode out the storm on Acklins: he was forced to flee rising seawater with eight families and his own. In retrospect he called the storm the "most powerful and frightening" he encountered. The storm also wrecked most of the homes on the Berry Islands. A sloop sank with her crew of 20 off Cat Island, where at least 74 drownings occurred. On Eleuthera, the storm downed coconut and other fruit crops; strong winds and high tides leveled 240 dwellings, 14 churches, and two schools on the island. On the island, the storm rendered most roads unusable and washed the primary causeways out to sea, leaving 2 to 4 ft of water covering the island. On Exuma the hurricane destroyed 90% of the buildings, including 500 houses, and left more than 1,000 denizens homeless. The storm partly wrecked 300 other houses as well. At George Town the storm destroyed a rectory and six churches, along with more than half of the homes in the settlement. The vessel Sarah Jane sank with her crew of six. An additional drowning occurred as a man attempted to reach shore from another vessel. On Farmer's Cay the storm destroyed many roads, a bridge, all the fruit trees, and all unharvested crops, including the entire corn crop. Dead cattle, including sheep, littered the island as well. On Long Cay the storm wrecked 400–500 structures, leaving only 12 homes intact. On San Salvador the storm felled a number of trees and more than nine churches. On Bimini, the hurricane razed a lighthouse, a pair of churches, a hotel, six homes, and a wireless telegraph station; strong winds tore roofs off several churches and other buildings. The crew of the Cinnabar measured a minimum barometric pressure of 28.20 inHg during the storm. Winds on Bimini peaked at hurricane force around 04:00 UTC on July 27 while shifting from north to south.

On Long Island the cyclone generated an estimated surge of 1.49 m, based on SLOSH estimates; this was the highest modelled on record there. The southern portion of the island was most severely impacted, with hardly a home left intact. On the island the storm wrecked a schoolhouse, four churches, five shops, 23 watercraft, and 230 dwellings, including 25 houses at Clarence Town. Several public buildings in Clarence Town were damaged to some degree. The storm also leveled a lighthouse each at Simms and North End, respectively; a bridge at the former was badly damaged. During the storm 132 persons sheltered and were forced to stay in place for weeks on end due to the destruction of their homes. On Crooked Island the cyclone destroyed 184 homes and a church. On Andros the storm annihilated most bridges and dwellings, along with 95% of the coconut palms and most of the sisal crop, the last of which topped 1500 lb. At Staniard Creek the cyclone partly unroofed a Methodist church and completely unroofed the Social Union Society Hall. In the settlement the storm also wrecked the Commissioner's Office, the Good Samaritan Lodge Hall, and many other structures. The storm also destroyed more than 25 houses at Staniard Creek. At Mastic Point the storm destroyed 89 homes, many of which were built of stone, and rendered the settlement virtually unrecognizable. At Nicholls Town the hurricane destroyed or rendered uninhabitable 27 homes, along with the teacher's residence, the latter of which lost most of its furniture. Most streets in Nicholls Town were littered with various items, downed coconut palms, boats, walls, and pieces of homes. Following the storm 97 homeless residents sought shelter in the public schoolroom. Damage to government property at Nicholls Town totaled well in excess of ₤10,000. The storm washed away or blew down all but nine structures at Conch Sound. At Fresh Creek seawater overtopped the beach and merged with floodwaters from the creek. In the nearby settlement the storm severely damaged or destroyed 83 buildings and felled 500 coconut palms. Three drowings were reported from there. The schooner Imperial wrecked off Red Bays, west of Andros, with seven members of her crew lost. Rough seas also swept away several houses at Red Bays, drowning an indeterminate number of people. Three sponging schooners were also destroyed, five of whose crew perished. Additionally, many vessels off North Andros vanished along with their large crews. At Long Bay Cays, South Andros, the hurricane sank, marooned, or destroyed many vessels. The storm also annihilated the main road in the settlement for several miles beside the sea, depositing piles of impregnable vegetation and marine debris that left the road impassable at several locations. A drainage canal dating to the previous year was breached and filled with sand as well, a 30 to 40 ft strip of shoreline having been eroded. Damage to the canal and the road totaled over ₤200.

New Providence and Grand Bahama
Denizens of Nassau regarded the storm as the most impactful in the city since a storm in 1866. Winds in the city were believed to be have been much stronger than in the hurricane of 1866. The storm, which lasted two days at Nassau, left water standing up to 4 + 1/2 ft deep in streets and yards. Royal palms citywide were shorn of their crowns, save but a few fronds, "like roosters after a cockfight." At Adelaide Village the storm destroyed all but a single dwelling, along with the local churches. The Fort Montagu Hotel lost most of its Spanish-style roof tiles, along with a portion of the roof itself, and many of its windows and glass panes were shattered as well. Floodwaters damaged the interior of the hotel, and strong winds downed every tree on its grounds. At Fox Hill and Grant's Town the cyclone destroyed most of the homes, leaving wreckage piled in flooded streets. In Nassau the storm also destroyed warehouses containing liquor on the northern side of Bay Street. Boats washed across Bay Street at the height of the storm; once the winds had subsided the street was filled with water to a depth of 1 ft for 1/4 mi. A promenade at the eastern end of the street was compared to a "vast lake," the entrance to which was obstructed by fallen trees. 42 of the 49 watercraft in the Nassau Harbour Channel were blown ashore and wrecked. On Grand Bahama authorities concluded that winds surpassed 120 mph (195 km/h) during the hurricane. On the island the hurricane severely damaged or destroyed all boats, several docks, a bridge, and a church. A schooner, the Dauntless, sank with her crew of nine.

Florida
The Weather Bureau concluded that winds on the east coast of Florida peaked at an estimated 90 mph (145 km/h). Total losses from the storm in Florida reached $2$1/2$ million.

South Florida
South of Miami the cyclone damaged Citrus groves and felled two-thirds of the ripe avocados, the latter of which incurred a loss of $100,000 as a result. In Miami gale-force winds downed high tension wires, trees, and signs. Strong winds downed at least 20 telephone poles citywide. Winds also shattered windows and destroyed awnings on Miami Beach. A lineman there died of electrocution while repairing overhead wires. Waves on North Beach destroyed a bulkhead next to Baker's Haulover Inlet. An apartment complex, the Gulf Stream, on North Beach sustained several thousand dollars in losses due to wind and tide. The storm tore a mobile diving board on the property loose from its mooring and hurled it against a camber, resulting in its being damaged; the platform had been tethered to an anchor by a pair of 1 in steel cables. High tides heavily damaged bulkheads at Normandy Isles. The 40 ft cabin cruiser Don B., moored on Indian Creek, sustained $200 in damage to her superstructure. Winds also downed small palms on Allison Island. On Biscayne Bay the storm wrecked three houseboats, two harbor tugs, and two pleasure craft, along with a number of canoes.

In Fort Lauderdale the storm wrecked plate glass, awnings, and other items, including 72 of the 118 light fixtures at Croissant Park. Winds citywide were reportedly stronger than in the last significant cyclone, in 1910. On the oceanfront high winds whisked away automobile roofs, and at nearby Progresso a furniture warehouse lost its roof and one of its walls, a concrete-block section. Sections of Ocean Boulevard south of Fort Lauderdale Beach were rendered irreparable, as a 1/4 mi stretch of highway was undermined by the ocean, bringing the coastline 200 ft inland. The shoreline had also migrated landward to the sidewalks on Fort Lauderdale Beach, and at least 1/2 ft of sand, along with portions of a seawall and other debris, covered Ocean Drive. The New River also overtopped its banks at one location. On nearby Hollywood Beach the storm extensively damaged a local boardwalk and other oceanfront property. At Hillsboro Inlet Light the storm generated winds of 65 mi/h, the strongest observed there since at least 1911. High tides partially covered roads leading to the light station. At Pompano winds tossed a water tank off the third story of the Pinehurst Hotel and unroofed much of the building. The storm also overturned small structures citywide. Rainwater also filtered into the headquarters of the Pompano News, which lost part of its roof as well.

At Delray the storm reportedly proved to be the worst in living memory. Waves up to 25 ft in height swept across Ocean Boulevard, and high winds unroofed homes throughout the city. The winds also shifted garages and small structures off their foundations. At West Palm Beach the storm damaged beyond repair approximately 40 yachts and houseboats on the Lake Worth Lagoon. The storm spread sand and debris across lakefront thoroughfares such as Flagler Boulevard, which sustained washouts as well. Winds at West Palm Beach, backing from northeast to southwest, ranged from 70 to 80 mph (115 to 130 km/h), and pressures dipped to 29.02 inHg at 14:30 UTC on July 27. The strong winds dislodged roof tiles, roof shingles, and signage in town. Winds downed several hundred royal palms on Palm Beach. Between there and Lake Worth surging tides formed 12 to 20 ft potholes at 20 spots in Ocean Drive.

Central and North Florida
The storm damaged 35–40% of the Citrus crop between Fort Pierce and New Smryna. Between Palm Beach and Stuart strong winds felled approximately 100 utility poles. At Stuart the storm removed half the shingles from numerous homes and businesses, though in general damage to city property was negligible. Surging tides and 6 to 10 ft waves combined to tear apart the local seawall and the city dock. Windows, screens, awnings, and signage throughout the city were wrecked, particularly along the exposed waterfront. The right annex of the El Bit-Lor was drenched in rain as tiles were blown off at spots, latticework ripped apart, and screens destroyed, allowing fallen plaster to damage furniture below. Windows in a café were smashed, allowing 2 in of water inside, and a 15 ft section of tile roofing was blown off the Peacock Arcade. Collapsed tiles shattered a skylight at the Dixie Pelican Hotel, and a veranda at the hotel was destroyed. At the height of the storm barometers registered pressures as low as 28.70 inHg in Stuart. At Palm City numerous utility poles were blown down or left standing at inclines. Several structures there were unroofed or shifted off of their foundations. On the St. Lucie River docks, boathouses, and watercraft were rendered irreparable or washed out. Mostly minor damage was registered in Salerno, though losses were reportedly worse at Olympia. Inland, at Indiantown, a number of homes and the general store were knocked off their foundations, and many roofs were impacted. On the barrier island opposite Fort Pierce, the storm prostrated several utility poles and cabbage palms; in Fort Pierce itself several structures were unroofed or badly damaged, while lightweight structures such as fish packing houses and pumping stations were leveled. A 700 ft portion of the causeway was undermined and eroded, a smokestack was leveled, and the structure that housed boilers at a power plant was unroofed. In Vero Beach the storm was considered the worst since 1910. Ornamental vegetation in the city was prostrated. At Gifford a church and small homes in a Black community were wrecked or otherwise moved off their foundations.

At Melbourne elderly residents reported that the storm was the most severe on record. There the hurricane flooded several homes, and flipped small watercraft and yachts at nearby Eau Gallie. At Cocoa the eye of the hurricane passed overhead at 04:45 UTC on July 28, accompanied by a lull in the wind and a registered pressure of 28.89 inHg. A trio of smokestacks attached to a boiler, at a power station operated by Florida Power & Light, were toppled by high winds. At Cocoa Beach high waves left escarpments of 6 to 8 ft and shifted the shoreline 12 ft inland. A combined hotel and casino on the oceanfront sustained the loss of its boardwalk, the front of the structure having been undermined and left protruding seaward. The cooperative observatory at Merritt Island recorded a minimum atmospheric pressure of 28.80 inHg, along with rainfall of 10.40 in, the highest measured in the state during the storm. At Mims winds downed 15–20% of the local grapefruit and orange crops. Winds also downed many oaks, palms, and pines. The hurricane also ripped off the upper front section of a brick structure in Titusville. Local fishermen compared the effects of the storm on the Indian River to those of a storm in about 1871. Near Rockledge strong winds destroyed lightweight housing at a tourist camp. At New Smyrna the storm demolished a makeshift beachfront hangar. The storm rendered the beachfront all but inaccessible to motorists. The hurricane dismantled a then-incomplete woman's club at Coronado Beach. A nearby hotel incurred the collapse of its concrete breakwaters and several walls. Waves damaged the front of the hotel to such an extent that they necessitated the replacement of the structure's foundation. Winds also damaged the roofs of several homes in the area. Beachfront concessions and portions of a boardwalk were wrecked at Daytona Beach. Communications with inland cities such as Orlando, Arcadia, and Lakeland were disrupted.

Once inland over North and Central Florida, the cyclone continued to generate strong winds that flattened crops, agricultural outbuildings, and trees. Residents of Jacksonville considered the storm one of the most significant in recent years. A hurricane-spawned tornado struck a farmstead at Mission City, along Murray Creek, destroying chicken coops and killing approximately 100 chickens. The twister also damaged outbuildings and leveled a garage on the property.

Georgia, Alabama, and elsewhere
Outside Florida, the cyclone yielded heavy rainfall that led to severe flooding and correspondingly extensive damage to summertime cropland. The region between Charleston, South Carolina, and Fernandina, Florida, reported washouts. At Savannah, Georgia, the fringes of the cyclone downed several trees and generated above-normal tides. A campsite of the Georgia National Guard was submerged by floodwater, forcing the 121st Infantry Regiment to retreat to higher ground. Their tents and possessions flooded, the men eventually stayed at Fort Screven on Tybee Island. Up to 1 ft of water filled the streets of downtown Savannah, blocking trolley underpasses, while strong winds shattered windows. At Dublin the storm felled trees.

Aftermath and recovery
After the storm, the crew of the USS Bay Spring delivered over 1,000 t of munitions and construction materials to aid the stricken residents of Bimini.