User:CarrotsandCelery/Ghaba Neolithic Cemetery

Ghaba is a Neolithic cemetery mound and African archaeological site located in Central Sudan in the Shendi region of the Nile Valley. The site, discovered in 1977 by the Section Française de la Direction des Antiquités du Soudan (SFDAS) while they were investigating nearby Kadada, dates to 4750–4350 and 4000–3650 cal BC.

Excavation
Ghaba was discovered in 1977 by the SFDAS led by Francis Geus during their investigations of another nearby Neolithic cemetery Kadada. The mound was 3 meters high and 3600 square meters in area. Investigators noted that the size of the mound had likely decreased significantly due to erosion. The first excavation at Ghaba was in 1980, and further investigation took place in 1985 and 1986. The mound was divided into four quarters. The northeast section was excavated thoroughly, and test trenches were made in the other three quadrants. Many of the graves were dangerously close to the surface, where they would be threatened by erosion. 328 total graves were excavated: 265 Neolithic graves, and 63 historic graves. The bones were described as poorly preserved, and most documentation and collection was of the teeth. There was no physical anthropologist involved in the excavations, so data pertaining to sex, age, and health is very limited or completely absent. Non-skeletal material collected was preserved much better, and have been restored and photographed extensively. The graves were documented, mapped, and drawn in detail. They recorded the materials found in the grave, and the orientations and positioning of the skeletons and other materials. They were able to use the recorded depths of the burials to make conclusions about seriation of the burials and also the pottery.

The skeletal material recovered are at the Research Centre in Evolutionary Anthropology and Palaeoecology in Liverpool, UK. The pottery recovered was restored and is now kept at the Khartoum National Museum.

Grave Goods
About 70% of the graves at Ghaba had goods associated with them that were discovered during the excavation. Many contained pottery (53.58% of total graves), but other items were shells, animal bones, bracelets, beads, pendants, palettes, grinders, and malachite splinters.

Pottery
The pottery at Ghaba were mostly globular bowls. During excavations, archaeologists recovered 311 complete or mostly complete pottery vessels. These bowls were mostly buried upside-down next to the heads of people, which is unusual, but has been recorded at at other Neolithic sites such as Kadero in a few graves, and in one case each at Al Khiday 2 and Shaheineb. Some pots showed evidence that they had been repaired before burial, indicating they were not made specifically for funerary purposes, and were functional.

Recovered pots were handmade with coil technique and could be easily divided into groups based on shape. These shapes are beakers, bowls, jars, dishes, and spoons. Bowls were further broken down into types such as hemispherical, globular, conical, and composite. Jars were broken down into the types ovoid, globular, and biconical. Beakers were divided into types caliciform or cylindrical. Of the most abundant category: bowls, the most common types are globular and then hemispheric.

Light brown or red surfaces of the pottery are most common. 48.39% of the vessels were decorated. Analysic of the decorations found 22 different types obtained via incision, impressions, and firing methods. There are also 7 distinct rim decoration patterns. Many of these decoration types can also be found at other Neolithic cemeteries in central Sudan and upper Nubia.

The cylindrical beakers, of which they found 12 distinct vessels are unique to Ghaba.

Beads
Amazonite beads were seen here but very rare. The amazonite originated from Ethiopia, and was seen in large quantities at other Neolithic cemeteries such as R12, which suggests a North African trade network may have existed existed in the Neolithic.

Presence of shell beads may further indicate an existing trade route between the Nile Valley in Sudan and the Red Sea.

Malachite
A unique feature of a few skeletons were teeth stained with malachite, and some graves contained malachite splinters without teeth stains. 24.15% of total graves had malachite splinters of coloration. Malachite power and splinters have been found to much lesser extents at other Neolithic cemeteries such as R12 and Gebel Ramlah, but the coloration on the teeth is unique in the archaeological record to Ghaba. Malachite is found on the Red Sea coast in Africa.

White Powder
In some graves, they found a thin layer of white power under the skulls as "pillows". This powder was analyzed and determines to be plant material. 14.72% of total graves analyzed had this white powder.

Ochre Coloration
12.45% of total individuals were found to have red or yellow coloration on the bone, contributed to ochre power in the burial bed during the funerary process. This feature is documented at other Neolithic cemeteries such as R12 to a larger extent, and Kadada to a lesser extent.

Plant Analysis
Analysis of dental calculus and the white power left under skulls determined that Ghaba was dominated by C4 grasses like millets. Particularly, they found plants of the Paniceae family or panicoids, which are local grasses, to be most dominant. Analysis showed a significant contribution from wild grasses, and small amounts of wheat and barley. The dental calculus specifically suggested consumption of wheat and barley, large millets, and legumes such as hyacinth bean, and cowpea, these being wild and domesticated plants.