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= Emotional expression = Emotional expressions are behaviors that communicate an emotional state or attitude. They can be verbal or non-verbal, and can occur with or without self-awareness. Emotional expressions include facial movements like smiling or scowling, simple behaviors like crying, laughing, or saying "thank you," and more complex behaviors like writing a letter or giving a gift. Individuals have some conscious control of their emotional expressions;[1] however, they need not have conscious awareness of their emotional or affective state in order to express emotion.

Researchers in psychology have proposed many different and often competing theoretical models to explain emotions and emotional expression, going as far back as Charles Darwin's discussion of emotion as an evolved capacity.[2] Though there is no universally accepted theory of emotion, theorists in emotion generally agree that healthy humans experience, express, and regulate emotions in a variety of ways (John & Gross, 2004). The cultural norms and beliefs of a society also affect and shape the emotional expressions of its members, and expressions appropriate and important in one culture may be taboo in another.[3]  The expression of emotions can play an important role in social interactions and relationships.

Models of emotion [edit]
There are many different theories about the nature of emotion and the way that it is represented in the brain and body. Of the elements that distinguish between the theories of emotion, perhaps the most salient is differing perspectives on the functions of emotional expression (Crivelli & Fridlund, 2019). Some theories about emotion consider emotions to be biologically basic and stable across people and cultures.[2][6][7] These are often called "basic emotion" perspectives because they view emotion as fundamental and biologically determined.[8][9] Some theories of emotion take the stance that emotional expression is more flexible, and that there is a cognitive appraisal component to emotion. The way in which one tends to appraise situations  varies by person and culture; however, appraisal models still maintain that there are basic responses that are specific and consistent to each emotion that humans feel.[10][11][12]

Other theories of emotion propose that emotions are constructed based upon the person, situation, culture, and past experiences, and that there are no preset emotional responses that are consistent and specific to one emotion or another.[13][14][15][16]  Finally, functionalist approaches such as the behavioral ecology viewpoint posit that emotional expressions are intended to communicate someone’s future behaviours in a social situation (Crivelli & Fridlund, 2019).

Basic emotions theory (BET)[edit]
From the perspective of Basic Emotions Theory (BET), an individual's emotional expressions directly convey their internal emotional state. If a person is smiling, they are happy. If a person is crying, they are sad. Each emotion has a consistent and specific expression, which occurs only during that emotion and not others. For that reason, emotional expressions are the best direct indicators of affective attitudes and dispositions.

Basic Emotions Theory is based on Charles Darwin's The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. Darwin claimed that the expression of emotions involves many systems: facial expression, behavioral response, and physical responses, which include physiological, postural, and vocal changes. Most importantly, Darwin claimed that emotional expression was consistent with his theories on evolution and thus, the expression of emotion is universal and should therefore be expressed similarly across race or culture. This is known as the universality hypothesis. In support of this argument, studies have shown that primates and animals exhibit precursors of muscle actions of the facial expressions of humans.[6]

Many researchers have expanded on Darwin's original theories on emotional expression. Paul Ekman, Carroll Izard and colleagues[17] were the first to test Darwin's theory. These psychologists found that there were six basic emotions that were recognized across a variety of cultural contexts: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust.[17][18] Later studies suggested these unique facial expressions convey information about one's internal state, and this information is used to coordinate social interactions.[6][17] Overall, Basic Emotion Theory assumes that emotions are unique events that occur as a result of dedicated mechanisms, and each emotion has its own  specific brain circuit.[19] Ongoing research under the umbrella of Basic Emotion Theory now asserts that over 20 emotions are uniquely and reliably signalled (Keltner, Sauter, Tracy, Cowen, 2019).

Applications of BET
Ekman created the Facial Action Coding System (FACS) and Facial Expression Awareness Compassion Emotions (F.A.C.E) to specify the features associated with each of the six basic emotions. FACS is a database wherein each facial movement is termed an action unit (AU). Any facial expression can then be coded as a combination of action units.[20]  F.A.C.E consists of the Micro Expression Training Tool (METT), which trains individuals to distinguish between emotional expressions by recognizing the distinct action units that are unique to each emotion. The second part of this training program focuses on micro-expressions. The Subtle Expression Training Tool (SETT) trains individuals to be able to recognize the subtle changes in a person's facial expression due to slight changes in emotional experiences. These subtle expressions can occur at the onset of emotions, or when an individual is actively suppressing the emotion.[20]  These tools promote the BET view that a person’s face directly conveys internal emotions, even when they are actively trying to control their facial expression.

Appraisal model[edit]
In appraisal models, emotions are a function of mental states, each of which is unique in both form and function. Appraisal models are similar to Basic Emotion Theory in that both views consider emotional expressions to be biologically predetermined and unique. Unlike Basic Emotion Theory, however, appraisal models assume that there is a cognitive assessment that determines which emotion is evoked. Emotional expressions arise from cognitive appraisals of a situation or evironment.[21]

Traditional appraisal theories consider cognitive appraisals to be analogous to reflexes, triggered by specific biological and environmental factors. When a person appraises situation X, they react to their assessment with emotional response X, which can include external emotional expression X[22].

More recent appraisal models account for variation in emotional expression by suggesting that cognitive appraisals are more like themes that can be evoked by a number of different actions and situations[21]. One appraisal model has developed the Law of Situational Meaning, which states that emotions tend to be evoked by certain kinds of events. For example, grief is elicited by personal loss. In this case, the situation of personal loss would evoke the appraisal, and subsequently the expression, of grief.[22]

Psychological construction model[edit]
The psychological construction model suggests that emotions result  from more basic psychological processes.[13][14] There are several basic psychological processes involved in the experience of emotion, including affect (positive or negative feeling combined with some degree of physiological activation), previous experiences, language, and executive functioning or cognitive control. While some emotions tend to have typical responses (e.g., crying when sad, laughing when amused), a psychological construction model can account for the wide variability that occurs in human emotional expression (e.g., crying when extremely happy, laughing when uncomfortable).[15]

Psychological construction models call into question the Basic Emotion Theory assumption that there are basic, discrete emotion expressions that are universally recognized. Many Basic Emotion Theory studies use highly posed, stereotypical facial expressions as emotional signals, such as a pout to indicate sadness. These facial expressions can be better understood as symbols of emotion rather than signals.[23] These symbols have undeniable emotional meaning, and are observed in human emotional behavior. However, psychological construction models point out that emotional expressions do not have a one-to-one relationship with a person's internal mental or emotional state (Barrett, Adolphs, Marsella, Martinez, & Pollak, 2019). For example, not everyone furrows their brow when they are feeling angry. Nuances of social situations, and people’s individual differences, affect how people express and experience emotions (Carroll & Russell, 1996).

Moreover, these emotional symbols are not universal due to cultural differences (Jack, Garrod, Yu, Caldara, & Schyns, 2012). For example, when Western individuals are asked to identify an emotional expression on a specific face in an experimental task, they focus on the target's facial expression. Japanese individuals use the information of the surrounding faces to determine the emotional state of the target face.[24] This challenges the cross-cultural validity of experiments that rely solely on the presentation of an isolated, peak emotional expression in experiments, as they reflect a Western notion of emotion.[13][14][15][25]

Social construction model[edit]
Social construction models posit that emotions are solely based on experience and context, displacing any notions of biological determination (Fernandez-Dols, Carrera, & Russell, 2002). Some theorists suggest that certain emotions can only exist in the reciprocal exchanges of a social encounter. Like language and morality, culture pervades all aspects of emotional experience and expression.[26] Thus, emotional expressions are culturally-prescribed performances rather than internal mental events. Knowing a social script for a certain emotion allows one to enact the emotional behaviors that are appropriate for the cultural context.[21] Emotional expressions serve a social function and are essentially a way of reaching out to the world.[27]

Behavioral ecology model (BECV)
The behavioural ecology viewpoint, like social construction models, takes a functionalist approach to facial displays of emotion. From this perspective, a facial expression indicates not an internal state, but rather an intended social action (Crivelli & Fridlund, 2019). For example, smiling is not necessarily an indication of happiness, but rather a demonstration that the smiler wants to play or affiliate with the person they’re facing. Similarly, pouting may or may not indicate sadness, but is intended to evoke sympathy or protection (Crivelli & Fridlund, 2019). Behavioral ecology notes that in humans' evolutionary history, sensitivity to facial expressions would have allowed for smoother social interactions as people could better ‘read’ each other’s intentions (Crivelli & Fridlund, 2019). In this model, facial expressions are flexible and adaptive responses to a variety of social situations and cultural contexts.

Emotion regulation[edit]
Various researchers have highlighted the importance for an individual of being able to successfully regulate emotions. Ways of doing this include cognitive reappraisal (interpreting a situation in positive terms) and expressive suppression (masking signs of inner emotional states).[1] Emotions are evident through facial expressions. Humans can express their own emotions and understand others as well.[28] Humans can quickly identify happy expressions whereas the disgust expression takes longer to identify.[29]

Emotional intelligence[edit]
Theorists such as Gardner and Sternberg have each presented different definitions and categories of intelligence.[30] Gunderman refers to emotional intelligence as a type of intelligence, in addition to the commonly used definition. He has defined it as "the ability to understand and respond to emotions in daily life".[28] For instance, a person who does not face his or her emotions and tackle them may be constantly frustrated. This person will face troubles moving on with his or her life. Consequently, emotionally intelligent individuals are better at expressing and identifying their emotions and those of the people around them. Those who are adept at handling their emotions tend to live an easier life than those who are not. Since people with better emotional intelligence are sensitive to emotions, they are considered better team players and are family-oriented.

Some researchers argue that emotional intelligence is biological, while others say it is innate. Gunderman states that emotional intelligence is a learned and an instinctual skill.[28] According to him, it can be cultivated through three means: learning more about it, drawing attention to it for oneself and others, and reading the works of authors he considers to be emotionally intelligent, such as Jane Austen and Leo Tolstoy.[28] Through engaging in emotional expressions and regulation, it is contemplated more than before and brings forth considerable changes in life and attitude. Sy and Cote conducted a study that proved emotionally intelligent are more competent and perform better. Therefore, many companies are using "EI training programs" to increase matrix performance.[31]

Disorders[edit]
There are a few disorders that show deficiency in emotional expression and response. These include alexithymia, autism, hypomimia and involuntary expression disorder.[citation needed]

Effects[edit]
Expressing emotions can have important effects on individuals’ well-being and relationships with others, depending on how and with whom the emotions are shared. Emotions convey information about our needs, where negative emotions can signal that a need has not been met and positive emotions signal that it has been meet. In some contexts, conveying this information can have a negative impact on an individual; for example, when others ignore or exploit those needs.[32]

Researchers note that there a number of important benefits to expressing emotions selectively. In the case of distress, expression can help people take control of their emotions and facilitate “mean-making” to help them reappraise their situation. For instance, emotional expression through writing can help people better understand their feelings, and subsequently regulate their emotions or adjust their actions.[33] In research by Pennebaker, people who observed a traumatic death showed more improvements in physical health and subjective well-being after writing about their emotions over several days. This research also shows that these benefits only appear when individuals undergo a cognitive change, such as in gaining insight about their experience.[34]

Emotional expression has social implications as well. Since emotions are related to our needs, it is important that they are expressed to others who care about our needs. Expression to someone with whom there is no desire to form a relationship is likely to receive no response.[32] Individuals who express negative emotions, in particular, may also appear less likeable as a result.[35] However, when an individual expresses to someone who responds with empathy, their relationship with that person can improve. Like with writing, hearing another person’s perspective can help people reappraise the situation that incited those emotions.[33]  Thus, high emotional expressiveness could be useful in constructively resolving relationship conflict [5]. Additionally, emotional expression to someone else can be viewed as a form of disclosure and sign of trust with that person, thus promoting intimacy. For example, greater expression of emotions or willingness to express negative emotions, such as anxiety or fear, promotes the formation of more relationships, greater intimacy in those relationships, and more support from others.[32][35]   Evidence shows that gay partners have higher levels of expressiveness than heterosexual.[4]

New References
Barrett, L.F., Adolphs, R., Marsella, S., Martinez, A.M., & Pollak, S.D. (2019). Emotional Expressions Reconsidered: Challenges to Inferring Emotion From Human Facial Movements. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 20(1), 1-68. doi: 10.1177/1529100619832930

Carroll, J.M. and Russell, J.A. (1996). Do Facial Expressions Signal Specific Emotions? Judging Emotion From the Face in Context. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(2), 205-218.

Crivelli, C. and Fridlund, A.J. (2019). Inside-Out: From Basic Emotions Theory to the Behavioral Ecology View. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 43, 161-194. doi: 10.1007/s10919-019-00294-2

Fernandez-Dols, J.M., Carrera, P., & Russell, J.A. (2002). Are Facial Displays Social? Situational Influences in the Attribution of Emotion to Facial Expressions. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 5(2), 119-124.

Jack, R.E, Garrod, O.G.B, Yu, H., Caldara, R., & Schyns, P.G. (2012). Facial expressions of emotion are not culturally universal. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS), 109(19), 7241-7244.

John, O.P. and Gross, J.J. (2004). Healthy and Unhealthy Emotion Regulation: Personality Processes, Individual Differences, and Life Span Development. Journal of Personality, 72(6), 1301-1334.

Keltner, D., Sauter, D., Tracy, J., & Cowen, A. (2019). Emotional Expression: Advances in Basic Emotion Theory. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 43, 133-160. doi: 10.1007/s10919-019-00293-3