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Relations between Malta and EU:
Malta is an island in the Mediterranean with an area of “316 square kilometers” and that has often been under foreign domination (French, English, …) and has a long history of relations with its neighbours on both sides of the Mediterranean Sea. Malta was part of the British Empire when it sought independence in 1962 and became fully autonomous in 1964. Malta then sought to “consolidate its statehood”.

The first relations between Malta and the EU, formerly the European Economic Community, date back to 1970 through an Association Agreement. This is a first step towards the future accession of the island in the Community and it is more than just economic and trade relations in sight for both protagonists. The association agreement will continue for several years. A first application for membership is made in July1990 but the steps are suspended in 1996 after a change of government. Indeed, at that time, two major parties were fighting for power in Malta, the pro-European Nationalists, and the anti-EU Labour Party. In 1997, “The Maltese government communicated its wish to seek as close relationship with the European Union as is compatible with Malta's particular economic and geopolitical circumstances, while mindful of the Union's acquis and its framework of operations”. Negotiations for possible EU membership resumed in 2000 and ended at the end of 2002. A referendum was held in Malta on whether the island should join the EU. A campaign between the two major parties polarized Maltese society on the European issue. The “yes” vote was won by 53.6% against 46% of the “no” vote. The island officially joined the EU in 2004 along with nine other states.

Negotiation points for accession:
During the negotiations, several bodies were set up in Malta to keep the public and different stakeholders informed of the process. For example, “Sectoral and public feedback was received through the discussions in the Malta-EU Action and Steering Committee (MEUSAC) chaired by the Minister of Foreign Affairs, in which practically all NGOs and sectoral representatives participated. MEUSAC had the task of preparing Malta's position papers for the negotiations”.

The points that Malta wanted to put forward were the recognition of its language and its Catholic character. The Catholic Church plays an important role in Maltese culture. For example, “70 per cent of the Maltese identify commitment to religious values as their top priority in life”. A protocol has been added for Malta to retain its own judgement on abortion. In addition, because of its size, Mate was granted several derogations: “the acquisition of secondary residencies by EU nationals, restrictions on the free movement of persons and the management of a fishing conservation zone”. There is also a special treatment for the island of Gozo or the neutrality status of the island which Malta obtained in the negotiations with the EU.

Benefits and constraints of EU membership:
For a state, which is considered a micro-state within the EU, Malta has benefited from its membership in terms of security and relations. It feels surrounded by several countries and carries more weight on the international scene. For example, it does not feel alone in the face of the terrorist threat or the Arab Spring which has shaken the region. It is also important in the Euro-Mediterranean partnership because it has “direct access to EU services and it operates in a richer information environment”. This strengthens the security of the island and stability for the region. Moreover, at the economic and trade level, the internal market offers important opportunities, especially as small states are more dependent on an export economy. It can also use the various EU institutions to make its voice heard, for example through unanimous voting. EU policies have helped to modernise Malta from within and to evolve certain policies such as “environment” or “protection of citizens”.

In terms of constraints, the EU requires its member states to participate in the availability and production of resources. Malta, being a small island, is more of a constraint despite these derogations. In addition, Malta having been often foreign sovereignty, is afraid to lose its nationality and part of its sovereignty in the EU.

Economic growth:
Malta's entry into the EU has enabled Malta to increase its economic growth over the past decade. In fact, it is "the second fastest growing economy in the EU". Thanks to the Union's single market, Maltese companies have been able to take advantage of exports to improve this growth. It is therefore possible to explain this economic increase by the external demand of the island and not from within. However, Malta remains a small island which also imports a lot into its territory (energy, consumption, ...). Malta, being an island, will benefit from its entry into the Union because it will be able to increase its maritime transport with the countries of the Union. The other EU countries will also be able to benefit from this as Malta benefits from "more lax maritime legislation" than other Member States. Foreign investors will therefore establish their residence in this country, which will increase Malta's economic growth. The EU expands in maritime trade and in the Mediterranean. Malta will also benefit economically from its entry as the EU has established some trade agreements with some Mediterranean countries. The island is close to the countries of the Middle East and the Southern Mediterranean. However, some economists feared Malta's entry into the EU because it had a rather fragile economy due to its "lax" policies and because it is a small state.

Moreveor, Malta was little affected by the economic crisis of 2009 compared to other countries in the region. It has managed to rebound and "its average annual economic growth between 2013 and 2018 was 7.2%, the highest of all EU economies". Three factors helps to boost the economy: “labor productivity, labor utilization, and population growth” .It has been able to cope with this through a significant increase in the number of workers (foreign and female) on the labour market. Malta's public debt has fallen below the “60% mark required by the Stability and Growth Pact” .Malta's economic growth is increasing in the field of tourism. In fact, in 2014, the economic results were 7.8 billion US dollars.

Unemployment rate:
Malta has maintained a low unemployment rate compared to other EU countries. It is among the good students on this point. Despite its small size and lack of natural resources which can be a problem, Malta has managed to increase employment opportunities. “Growth was job-rich, and the rate of employment growth in Malta between 2013 and 2018 was more than four times the rate prior to the financial crisis” .In 2010, the unemployment rate was 6.9% and in 2019, it was 3.6% as a percentage of the labour force. The unemployment rate fell after the 2008 financial crisis. In January 2021,  it was 4.4%.

There are two long-standing problems with unemployment in Malta:

The first is long-term unemployment. The authorities have set up training to help these people.The second is the low number of women. Indeed, the role of women is to stay at home when they are married or pregnant. However, attitudes are changing and there is an increase in working women in the younger generation. The authorities have introduced “free childcare” which allows more women to work.

In addition, in order to reduce unemployment, the authorities have set up a support programme for young people. In 2016, Malta registered “the lowest youth unemployment rate in the EU28”. This programme suggets a personalised package. It “offered training, work exposure and, where necessary, social counselling to address non-work related issues”.

Malta's unemployment rate has been falling since the island joined the European Union except during the financial crisis in 2007-2009.

Standard of living:
Living standards in the EU vary from country to country. In 2016, Malta would be in 26 out of 28 EU member states and would be in the fourth group with Spain, Croatia, and Romania, which means that these states have the lowest standard of living in the EU.

However, if we look at GDP per capita with balanced purchasing power. It can be seen that it has only increased on the island even before EU accession. Poverty remains present in Malta, “even though poverty in the streets is not visible”.

Disparities:
Income inequalities remain between the period 2010-2016. Education plays a significant role, with people with higher education having a higher income. Policies based on education and access to education could reduce economic disparities in income. In 2016, the income inequality ratio varied was 4.2 Malta. This ratio is calculated based on the 20% of the population with the highest income and the 20% of the population with the lowest income.

For example, a programme has been set up in 2014 to fight against poverty, called “A National Strategic Policy for Poverty Reduction and Social Inclusion”. It targets “children, elderly persons, unemployed people and the working poor” and this “strategy presents a series of policy initiatives that focus on the modernisation and effectiveness of social services; more student engagement and the attainment of higher and further education; improved training and vocational opportunities leading to more quality jobs; strengthening of primary health care and the promotion of healthy lifestyles; and the deepening of cultural awareness”.

Another example of fighting poverty is better social transfers. This contributes to all households and their welfare on the island. “Social transfers are having a very positive effect on families in Malta”.

The GINI coefficient shows the level of inequality in a state. In the case of Malta, in 2006, the Gini coefficient was 28. The level of inequality increased with the financial crisis and reached 30.2 in 2009 but it decreased to 28.7 in 2018.

Relations between Malta and EU:
Estonia is a small country in Eastern Europe, located on the Baltic Sea and bordering Russia. It was an integral part of the USSR until its collapse and became an independent state on 20 August 1991.

The first relations with the EU were re-established shortly after Estonia's independence on 27 August 1991. In 1992, negotiations were held for a trade and economic cooperation agreement between Estonia and the European Community. This agreement came into force in 1993. In 1993, at the Copenhagen Summit, a free trade agreement was discussed with the Baltic States and the EU. This agreement came into force in January 1995 for Estonia as there were several negotiation points “agriculture and textiles”. In June 1995, an association agreement was signed between the EU and the three Baltic States (Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia). On 28 November of the same year, Estonia officially applied for EU membership.

On 13 December 1997, the EU and Estonia started negotiations for membership. There are several countries applying at the same time as Estonia. The negotiations take several years and are completed by the end of 2002. The official agreement was signed by both parties on 16 April 2003. A referendum was also held in Estonia to find out the position of the population. The “yes” vote was won by 66.92% of the voters. On 1 May 2004, Estonia, together with 9 other candidates, officially became a member of the EU.

In addition, like many EU Member States, Estonia joined NATO on 29 March 2004. Estonia is also part of the Schengen Area (21 December 2007) and the Eurozone (1 January 2011).

Negotiation points for accession:
Estonia, since its independence, has made enormous efforts to meet the requirements for EU membership. The process of liberalising its economy and trade has been significant.

Moreover, Estonia has considered the EU law in its own laws as is the case for all Member States. This transfer into Estonian national law was an important change as the state changed its constitution to do so. For example, "Amendment of the constitution involved roundtables with lawyers and other experts. Several discussions about the sovereignty and constitutional independence related to the main legal act made accession possible".

Finally, to join the EU, Estonia had to adopt different rules to allow for a better integration of minorities in the society of this state. However, Estonia has a large Russian minority and Estonia fears that this integration will affect the identity of the Estonian people.

Benefits and constraints of EU membership:
The benefits that Estonia has gained from this relationship is its security. It has turned to the European states. It has re-engaged with them, and it has disassociated itself from its threatening Russian neighbour. Estonia is a small state that is afraid of its Russian neighbour. In particular, it has joined NATO. Moreover, the EU has brought it its internal market with important economic and commercial opportunities.

In terms of constraints, Estonia has obtained the security it was looking for, but at what cost to its identity. This accession entails a paradox for a part of the Estonian population. Some were looking for security, but with European integration, this represents a threat to the sovereignty and identity of this small Baltic state. Moreover, the EU provides in its laws for the recognition and protection of minorities, and Estonia has a large Russian minority on its territory. Estonia is distancing itself from its Russian neighbour and finally coming closer to it by recognising this Russian minority. In addition, an anti-European current has been growing strongly during the accession process and even more so in the first years as a member state. “For example, the claim that due to the danger to its very existence Estonia has no alternative to rapid integration into the EU is central to the pro-EU arguments. Paradoxically, such emphasis on the special endangered nature of Estonian identity also fuels euroscepticism as any outside influence can be construed as dangerous to Estonia”.

Economic growth:
After the fall of the USSR, and from the 2000s onwards, Estonia's economic growth became significant until the economic crisis of 2007. Its entry into the EU has helped this economy. This provided a "favourable external environment. Like many of the new members, Estonia had a "large informal economy" due to the neglect of working conditions by employees and low earners. The informal economy accounted for "more than 40% of GDP" in this state. Estonia's entry into the EU has enabled it to increase exports considerably, which has favoured the country's economic growth. Estonia has been able to diversify its export areas and become more innovative, which has favoured growth. Estonia took advantage of the EU's internal market to boost its exports and of Russia, which could no longer impose "unfair" tariffs. The trade balance has been reduced by this increase in foreign trade . As a result, employment opportunities have been created and this has also helped the Estonian economy. This strong economic growth can be explained by "an increase in domestic demand, particularly from households"before the economic crisis. Several sectors have favoured this increase, such as "the processing industries sector" or "the financial sector thanks to favourable conditions". “The burst of the property bubble and the global financial crisis in 2009 led to a severe recession, with Estonia, like its Baltic neighbours, one of the most adversely affected EU countries”. However, the rapid recovery of the Estonian economy was facilitated by a relatively flexible labor market, which allowed most adjustments to occur via reductions in wages and labor”.

Moreover, the GDP in current dollars only increased after the fall of the USSR except during the financial crisis of 2010 and in 2015.

Unemployment rate:
The unemployment rate in the new Member States is higher than in the old EU Member States. However, Estonia remains in the average range of the new Member States. The unemployment rate has been reduced with its entry into the EU thanks to economic growth and "the fact that some unemployed people have gone to work in neighbouring or EU countries such as Finland, Sweden or Great Britain”.The unemployment rate hits "Russian-speaking Estonians" hardest. After the financial crisis, Estonia had a rather high unemployment rate. In 2010 it was 16.7%“its unemployment rate more than triple in 3 years” . However, this rate has decreased over the years to 4.4% in 2019 as a percentage of the working population. It has been divided by 4 in a decade.

Standard of living:
The standard of living is not the same in every EU Member State. In 1999, Estonia was considered to be in the low group in terms of living standards. But in the last decade, the standard of living has grown significantly, exceeding "100%". However, the economic crisis has hit the Baltic countries hardest. Estonia experienced "a 12% decline in GDP per capita in purchasing power parity". After 2010, countries like Estonia have struggled to return to pre-crisis economic growth, so living standards are recovering moderately. But “Estonia’s path was quite volatile, having been severely affected by  the financial crisis, although its labor market flexibility enabled a quick recovery”. Estonia is in 13th position out of the 28 Member States in 2012. And this State is in the second group of EU countries, so the standard of living is average. It is higher in the ranking than some states that joined the EU at the same time.

The GDP per capita has only increased and can be an indicator of the standard of living in this state. It reached $40,000 in 2018.

Disparities:
Economic disparities are still significant in Estonia. In 2016, the per capita income inequality ratio was 5.6, which is higher than the EU's ratio of 5.2. This ratio is calculated based on the highest and lowest quintile of the population. In 2019, this ratio decreased to 5.08.

The Gini coefficient shows that since 2004 inequality has fallen. It went from 37.2 in 2003 to 33.6 in 2004. The coefficient peaked in 2013 at 35.1. After that year, the coefficient decreased to 30.3 in 2018.

Moreover, according to an OECD report, older people are more affected by income poverty in Estonia. The latter is "second only to South Korea with a poverty rate of 30% for people over 65".The poverty rate is also higher for women than for men in this country.