User:Chenglx/Byzantine architecture

= Byzantine architecture = Byzantine architecture is the architecture of the Byzantine Empire, or Eastern Roman Empire.

The Byzantine era is usually dated from 330 AD, when Constantine the Great moved the Roman capital to Byzantium, which became Constantinople, until the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. Within this there are four distinct periods of the Byzantine Empire. These periods are defined as Early Byzantine 324 CE to the 6th Century, The Transitional Period often associated with the Iconoclastic period in the 7th-9th Century, Middle Byzantine in the 9th – 12th Century, and Late Byzantine in the 13th-14th Century. There is a direct easily distinguishable relationship between the economics health, sphere of influence, and structure of greater Byzantine Empire and the art and Architecture during these periods. Its architecture dramatically influenced the later medieval architecture throughout Europe and the Near East, and became the primary progenitor of the Renaissance and Ottoman architectural traditions that followed its collapse.

Timeline of Byzantine Churches
The development history of Byzantine architecture is related to the historical changes and culture context of the Byzantines. The characteristics of Byzantine churches and monasteries can be roughly divided into six periods: pre-Constantinian (c.200-312), Constantinian (312-37), Early Christian (Mid-Fourth-Fifth Centuries), Sixth Century, Transitional Period (Seventh-Ninth Centuries), Middle Byzantine (c.843-1204) and Late Byzantine (c.1204-1453). The prevalent architectural forms in Pre Constantinian period were residential buildings called domus ecclesiae (house church) and area and catacombs that represent burial customs. Christian architecture has also become popular during this period. During the period of Constantine, as the Roman Empire accepted Christianity as the main religion, they began to build many basilicas and monuments of various forms to demonstrate their power and compete with their counterparts. The basilica built for the assembly was the main architectural form of Early Christian, but it differed from region to region, including types such as baptisteries, martyria, cruciform chapels and monasticism. In the sixth century, in addition to the construction of traditional basilica, two new types of church architecture appeared: one is a centralized plan with a long axis, and the other is a longitudinal plan with a central element. Domes also becomes an important architectural element in this period. Due to economic reasons, churches in the Transitional period are getting smaller in scale getting simplified in form. The Middle Byzantine architecture has various forms, but almost all have centralized elements, such as the central dome, to show the orthodox beliefs. The architectural form of the late Byzantine period has undergone more changes based on the region. Most of the church architecture are rebuilt based on the existing churches, adding complexity in form.

The Transitional Period
Influences and Characteristics

The death of Emperor Justinian I marks the end of the Early Byzantine period and the beginning of the Transitional Period or what could be understood as the Byzantine Dark  Age. The Transitional Period is defined by a territorial decline of the empire throughout the Mediterranean. In addition the period is defined by a plague, conflict with the Persians and an invasion of Arabs from the east, internal cultural conflict expressed in the Iconoclasm Controversy, all of which contributed to an economic downturn. This restructuring of the relationship between the Byzantine Empir e and its greater regional context had definitive and lasting effects on its architecture. Architectural expressions of The Early Byzantine Period are marked by economic growth, Pan-Mediterranean exchange of material, and large structural scale to accommodate congregations of a collection of both foreign and local peoples. (i.e. the Hagia Sophia of Constantinople). In contrast, Architecture during the Transitional Period was adaptive to a recessionary economy and distinct in its use of primarily locally sourced materials, smaller scale, and private patronage. To illustrate the example of the difference of scale between the two periods, The Hagia Sophia in Constantinople was commission by Justinian I in the Early Period’s sixth century had a dome measuring 100 Byzantine feet in diameter. In contrast, the seventh century dome of the The Hagia Sophia of Thessalonike was only 30 ft. in diameter and only measures 100 by 100 Byzantine feet in totality. Meaning almost the entire building could fit inside to just the dome of the Hagia Sophia of Constantinople. Most structures built during the time of the transitional period were smaller still.

The reduction in scale after the sixth century resulted in a new building types. Galleries and ambulatories characteristic of the larger building of the previous era were no longer necessary structurally or programmatically. For structures of intermediate size supports were reduced to columns and piers and buildings with domes less than 20 ft effectively utilized the cross in sphere technique to transfer loads through the walls. Example of these techniques can be seen in the Hagia Sophia in Thessalonike, the Hagia Saphia at Vize and St. Mary at Ephesus. All of which were restructured from the older basilica technique into new crossed domes between the seventh and the ninth century.

Two Important Cities

Constantinople and Jerusalem were regarded two significantly important cities on Byzantine history, both adapting into Constantine’s evolving concept of empire politically, religiously, and ideologically.

Without significant Roman history, Constantine’s refounding of the city was more likely to be an expansion. Monuments were constructed, and it was expected to be a second Rome through mimesis. While as a Roman colony, Jerusalem affirmed the empire’s new Christian identity, and was accommodating a large amount of holy sites.

After the eighth century there start to be urban revivals. However, the scene of everyday life is elusive in Byzantine society after the ninth century. Only religious architecture remains an amount of physical examples. As the cultural revival began in the ninth century till twelfth century, the city is under recovery of population and industry. The middle Byzantine period had changed in social life and public space. In the following time, Byzantine society becomes more private and inward, families became the focus. Comparing with significant monuments in the earlier stages, small churches and defensive systems became the main public spaces in the middle stage of Byzantine period.

Byzantine Dome
One of Byzantine cathedrals' most defining features is their domes, particularly the domed canopy, which helps bring extra light into Byzantine cathedrals. A light-filled void, the Byzantine dome is a culturally significant feature of Byzantine cathedrals and is often clad in golden mosaics within the interior. When first designed by Byzantine emperors, the Byzantine domed core was considered an area where divine activities could occur. Early Byzantine churches, such as the church of St. John the Theologian on the hill of Ayasoluk, contains a continuous dome base which massive flying buttresses are secured to, as well as pendentive domes. These early Byzantine churches typically included a monumental, solitary dome over the crossing and several pendentive domes surrounding the cross arms. As a guiding principle for Byzantine churches, the domed canopy was a flexible architectural feature that could adapt to a variety of contexts and locations. While the Hagia Sophia is an example of ancient Byzantine religious architecture, a contemporary example is the All Saints Center for Culture and the Arts in Stuart, Iowa.

The centrally-planned layout with the pendentive dome was designed for Christian baptisteries; yet, both the architectural form and the symbolic meaning of these Christian buildings were due to non-Christian, Roman traditions, such as the Roman Pantheon (117-125 CE), with its central oculus. Even in ancient Roman times, the dome was associated with the heavens. Roman and Early Christian forms slowly transitioned to Byzantine architecture, along with the influences of Eastern cultures, fusing the basilica with the dome. Byzantine architecture in particular, which dates from the fourth century to the present day, developed the dome to enclose polygonal and square plans for churches, tombs, and baptisteries.

The dome, which combined domical construction with the Classical columnar style, became a defining motif of Byzantine architecture. Various domes were secured above square rooms with pendentives - a style that differed from the Roman tendency to place domes solely over circular or polygonal structures. Byzantine domes were usually constructed out of brick of light, porous stone, such as pumice and were believed to be constructed without temporary support through the use of large flat bricks, a technique derived from Eastern modes of building. The dome’s lower portions usually included windows, which, in the later period, was pulled up over a high “drum.” Byzantine churches tended to group small domes around a large, central dome. The forms of these vaults and dorms were also present externally, maintaining complete visual correspondence between the exterior and interior.

During the height of the Byzantine Empire, the official historian of Emperor Justinian’s court, Procopius of Caesarea, recorded that the church was designed to “not rest upon solid masonry, but [cover] the space with its golden dome suspended from heaven.” The imagery of a massive dome resting on pillars was intended to recreate a sense of God’s divine presence, as well as to dazzle observers who visited the cathedral. Byzantine emperors attempted to create a sense of monumentality through massive domes and walls, devoid of excessive exterior decoration but rich with interior ornamentation. Byzantine domes also symbolize the connection between heaven and earth as the observer moves towards the spiritual realm through the experience of space.

Use of Mosaics

Mosaics have been used in Byzantine architecture since its origin. The function of mosaics in Byzantine Architecture has been used as the primary medium for ornamentation and artistic representation inside of Byzantine architecture, especially and extensively in religious Byzantine construction. Pre-Byzantine use of mosaic was used mostly in floors while Byzantine Architecture used mosaics extensively on ceilings as well as walls. This allowed Byzantine to incorporate softer and less robust materials. These materials include gold and silver leaf and various colors of glass. Not only were mosaics used to express a more heavenly atmosphere in religious space, they were often used to depict religious stories or political messages. The most common depictions seen in many precedents of Byzantine architecture include depictions of Christ surrounded by gold and silver backdrops. Although mosaics have been used extensively throughout Byzantine Architecture, prominent examples of mosaics in Byzantine architecture can be seen in the Hagia Sophia, Basilica of Sant'Apollinare, Basilica of San Vitale, Monastery of the Pantocrator, Our Lady of Saidnaya Monastery, and more.