User:ChinskiEpierOzki/Ideas

Nature
light, planet, spacetime, day, second, week, season, weather, atmosphere

Seasons
winter, spring, summer, autumn

Plants
coffee, banana, fig, cherry, coconut, tangerine, pineapple, plum, olive

orange, lemon, pear, peach, apple, lime, maple, ash, cypress, beech

mahogany, flax, eucalyptus, magnolia, redwood, larch, elm, poplar, alder

yew, almond, chestnut, spruce, birch, cedar, oak, pine, palm, walnut

Food Plants
gourd, safflower, ginger, mint, squash, date, cucumber, bamboo, cotton, melon

cork, grape, lettuce, tomato, cabbage, rice, bean, peanut, pea, corn/maize

wheat, spinach, garlic, sorghum, lentil, yam/sweet potato, sesame, millet

tea, onion, kelp, oat, mustard, teff, ginseng, hemp/marijuana, soybean

pepper (hot/sweet/bell), tobacco, amaranth, black pepper, carrot, potato

Animals
Life, Prokaryote, Eukaryote, Plant, Tree, Alga, Grass, Fern, Flower, Mammal

Human, Bird, Reptile, Amphibian, Waterlife, Fish, Mollusc, Invertebrate

Arthropod, Arachnid, Crustacean, Insect, Cat, Tiger, Leopard, Bobcat, Ocelot

Cheetah, Caracal, Dog, Wolf, Fox, Goat, Sheep, Serow, Musk-ox, Antelope

Wildebeest, Impala, Duiker, Cattle, Bison, Buffalo, Giraffe, Pronghorn, Deer

Moose, Bear, Racoon, Kinkajou, Weasel, Marten, Otter, Badger, Skunk, Pig

Hippo, Whale, Dolphin, Camel, Rhino, Tapir, Horse, Civet, Hyaena, Mongoose

Hedgehog, Moonrat, Shrew, Mole, Rabbit, Beaver, Chipmunk, Squirrel, Vole

Hamster, Rat, Mouse, Dormouse, Porcupine, Gopher, Gerbil, Chinchilla

Agouti, Guinea Pig, Bat, Treeshrew, Ape, Gibbon, Lemur, Baboon, Colobus

Loris, Tarsier, Marmoset, Seal, Pangolin, Sengi, Tenrec, Elephant, Armadillo

Anteater, Sloth, Opossum, Marsupial, Possum, Bandicoot, Wombat, Kangaroo

Platypus, Turtle, Lizard, Skink, Gecko, Snake, Crocodile, Frog, Salamander,

Ostrich, Brushturkey, Guan, Chicken, Quail, Partridge, Pheasant, Peafowl

Duck, Goose, Swan, Screamer, Dove, Pigeon, Crane, Rail, Cuckoo, Nightjar

Swift, Hummingbird, Plover, Sandpiper, Snipe, Gull, Flamingo, Loon, Petrel

Penguin, Stork, Booby, Cormorant, Pelican, Heron, Ibis, Vulture, Osprey, Eagle

Kite, Hawk, Owl, Hornbird, Woodpecker, Toucan, Roller, Kingfisher, Falcon

Parrot, Cockatoo, Broadbill, Manakin, Lyrebird, Oriole, Vireo, Vanga, Crow

Magpie, Shrike, Bird-of-Paradise, Berrypicker, Tit, Longbill, Lark, Swallow

Cisticola, Thrush, Robin, Wren, Finch, Sparrow, Blackbird, Tanager, Warbler

Cardinal, Hagfish, Sea Squirt, Lamprey, Skate, Sawfish, Ray, Shark, Starfish

Worm, Snail, Slug, Clam, Oyster, Mussel, Octopus, Squid, Nautilus, Sponge, Comb Jelly, Anemone, Coral, Jellyfish, Spider, Scorpion, Tick, Mite, Horseshoe Crab, Shrimp, Copepod, Barnacle, Krill, Prawn, Lobster, Crayfish, Crab, Centipede, Millipede, Springtail, Silverfish, Dragonfly, Earwig, Cricket, Grasshopper, Walking Stick, Mantis, Cockroach, Termite, Aphid, Louse, Cicada, Stink Bug, Bed Bug, Water Strider, Litter Bug, Bee, Wasp, Hornet, Ant, Sawfly, Stonefly, Lacewing, Beetle, Lady Beetle, Weevil, Scarab Beetle, Pill Beetle, Moth, Butterfly, Flea, Scoropionfly, Crane Fly, Mosquito, Gnat, Fly

Matter
elementary particle, atom, subatomic particle, hadron, liquid, solid, (gas), water

river, pond, rock, soil, glue


 * amber, amethyst, aquamarine, beryl, chrysoberyl, jet, lapis, opal, pearl ruby, sapphire, spinel, topaz

Gases
carbon dioxide, O2, air, ozone, nitrous oxide, carbon monoxide, ammonia

Liquids
wood alcohol, grain alcohol, fatty oil, honey, paint, brine, methanol, acetone

petroleum oil, formaldehyde, benzene, isopropyl alcohol, vinegar

Solids
glass, cloth/fabric, wax, spice/herb/seasoning

chalk, mineral, silk, diamond, metal/ore, sodium bicarbonate

marble, salt, lime, talc, table sugar, linoleum, graphite

emery powder, epsom salt, potash, sodium carbonate, Zinc oxide, fluorite, gypsum

soda lye, rubber, aspirin, silica, saltpeter, plastic, magnesium oxide

magnesium hydroxide, asbestos, brass, coal

tar, steel, jade, quartz, gypsum plaster


 * alum
 * ceramic glaze
 * chloroform
 * chlorofluorocarbon
 * cocaine
 * ethylene
 * intermetallide
 * methanol
 * nicotine
 * propane
 * psylocybin
 * sodium thiopental

Measurement
zero, one, cardinal, fraction, number, exponent, limit, set, scalar, reach

dimension, area, mass, amount, current, resistance, temperature, illumination

probability, protoscience

Numbers
two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen

fourteen, fifteen, hundred, ten thousand, hundred million, ten quadrillion

Emotion
want, play, fun, humor, smile, attraction, beauty, perfection, love, feeling

pleasure, pain, sympathy, gratitude, forgiveness, laxity, anger, pride, heart

consciousness, mood, delusion, transcendence, deity

Character
eccentricity, common sense, bravery, emotionalism, egoism, tenacity, naivete

self-centeredness, friendliness, apostasy, self-righteousness, irrationality

awareness, civility, honorableness, honesty, conceitedness, modesty, stupidity

nervousness, intelligence

Relationship
engagement, openmindedness, goodwill, reputation, irony

relation, marriage, romance, family, sibling, relative, cousin, in-law, godfamily

master, guidance, transfer, exchange, acknowledgement, celebration, law

Body
sight, smell, taste, hearing, face, head, mouth, throat, neck

torso, back, hand, arm, leg, butt, tooth, joint, body part

gender, pregnancy, health, infirmity, disease, slenderness, body performance

nervous system, heart, gastronomic system, internal sensation, affective sensation

breath, respiratory paroxysm, gastronomic paroxysm, sigh, bite, ingestion

Diseases
inflammatory, pulmonary, degenerative tissue, mental, topical skin

neuro-muscular, peripheral nervous system, cellular/metabolic, cancer

cardiovascular, ocular, back pain, nasal, ear, neurological, liver, genetic

musculo-skeletal, glandular/endocrine, throat/mouth, blood/hematological

invasive skin, spinal, microbial infection, brain lesion, bowel, common cold

tumorous/neoplastic, auto-immune, stomach/esophagus

Home
cooking, grain, milk, subsistence, growth, clothing, tool, ladder, floor, container

room, column, tower, house, money, weapon

Cooking
heatless, griddling, simmering, sautéeing, sundrying, slowcooking, barbecueing

flash frying, pressure cooking, broiling, stewing, parboiling, grilling, steaming, poaching

toasting, searing, brewing, smoking, marinading, boiling, baking, roasting, frying

Clothing
coat, tie, hat, dress, skirt, collar, pants, apron, robe, sock, veil, scarf, glove

shirt, shoe, belt, sari, tunic, helmet


 * bowtie
 * button

Property
color, dimness, texture, consistency, cleanliness, quality, dimensional relation

point, strip, sphere, block, outline, curve, fold, angle, part

Relation
distance, relative planarity, width, girth, edge sharpness, amplitude, reach, depth

interval/gap, height, straightness, speed, volume, point sharpness, rectilinearity

roundness, gravitational flatnesss, periphery, perpendicularity, concavity

planar evenness, convexity, linear evenness, elasticity, length

Parts
top, bottom, upper half, lower half, front, edge, side

parallel middle, perpendicular middle, back, interior, exterior

Motion
location, inside, outside, inversion

longitude, latitude, elevation, geography, perpendicular, horizontal, crouch

path, travel, access, dance, ambulation, levitation, contact

Knowledge
existence, origin, arrangement, gathering, balance, comparison, similarity

manifestation, event, change, polarity, switching

Behavior
mind, self, thought, knowledge, appearance

memory, guess, belief, motive, intention, manner, faculty

Language
search, question, waiting, opportunity, choice, consideration, possession

association, effort, making, application of knowledge, imitation, deception

hiding, escape, capture, safety, freedom, good, value, sign, writing, noise

speaking, description, name, Carrier, reading, explanation, music, art

Universe
Spacetime has existed for 138 hundred million years as space has been increasing its size from an extremely hot singularity at an accelerating pace. The abundance of material in reality is 68 parts acceleron-based dark energy, 27 parts dark matter, and 5 parts familiar baryonic matter. Electrons are elementary particles that began orbiting protons of opposite change and neutrons of no charge in atoms seconds into the start of the universe. Electrons form the electron cloud surrounding the nucleus at the center of electrically neutral atoms. Protons and neutrons are nucleons in atomic nuclei universally composed of three quarks. The former is composed of two up quarks and a down quark. The latter is composed of one up quark and a pair of down quarks. Quarks and leptons (like the electron) are elementary particles. Baryons composed of multiple quarks are composite particles. Cosmologists theorize the predominance of baryons over antibaryons in our universe from an imbalance of 1 part in 16 hundred million. After baryons and antibaryons finished eliminating each other, the universe was three parts hydrogen and one part helium. After two hours of incredibly rapid expansion, heavier elements could not form.

At present the universe is unimaginably large. A parsec is a distance of 30857 ten thousand hundred million meters. A photon is the fastest thing in existence and it takes 1200 days to to travel one parsec. It would take a spaceship ten thousand billion years to cover the same distance (at 26km/hr). The width of a galactic filament can be ~ pc accross. The edge of the observable universe is 140 hundred million parsecs away

There are hundreds of ten thousands of superclusters, 3rd-level-galaxy-structures based on the number of nodes. Our galaxy is called the milky path because we can see a cloud of stars across the night sky. The sun is a star in one of the four main spiral arms of the galaxy, orbited by four inner rocky planets, four outer gas giant planets, and various satellites.

Types of stars include brown dwarfs, black dwarfs, white dwarfs, red giants, supergiants, planetary nebula, nova, main-sequence stars, neutron stars, supernova, and black holes. Sun core, magnetic field, sunspots, and solar flares.

There are various constellations in the sky. In the orient of the northern hemisphere they were described by the 28 mansions, the heavenly stems, and the earthly branches. The Mayans also had a system of astrology.

Mercury, or the star of water is the 1st planet from the sun.

The solar system we inhabit has 1 star and 8 planets, from Mercury being the closest, followed by Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. In the Orient these were referred to as the stars of Water or 辰星 (morning), Gold or 启明/长庚/太白星君, ball of dirt, Fire 荧惑 (bewilderment, war), Wood 岁星 (year), Earth 镇星/填星 (stabling), and more recently named Sky King and Sea King.

Mars' moons are Phobos, Ceres, and Deimos. Jupiter's moons include Europa, Io, Ganymede, Callisto. Saturn's moons include Iapetus, Titan, Rhea, Dione, Tethys, and Mimas. Uranus' moons include, Oberon, Titania, Umbriel, Ariel, and Miranda. Neptune's moons include Triton. Some Keiper belt elements include Pluto, Charon, Haumea, Namaka, Hi'iaka Makemake, Eris, and Dysnomia.

Planets
Iron meteorite, chondrite, achrondrite, comet, asteroids, moons


 * Magnetic field

The curved surface of the world we live on is extends quite far. You can represent its objects, places, and terrain elevation in certain regions on a map. Below is one that illustrates the sphere, however areas towards the bottom are stretched horizontally in order to be projected onto this flat interface. You can imagine the top edge being condensed into a point and the bottom edge being condensed into a point to represent the non-planarity of the world. http://www.andre-franke.se/ft3/Shifted_earth_10800.png Lower elevations are shown in green and higher elevations are shown in red. The left and right edges flow into each other at the equator line, which also continues vertically at the center of the map, dividing the map into two halves. The center of the left half is called the north pole, the end of north-wise orientation. The center of the right half is called the south pole, the end of south-wise orientation. The line segment connecting these points is the 0 meridian. A line segment connecting them at an angle τ/24 below is a meridian marking the boundary of a time zone. After six successive line segments connecting the points angled 1/24 of a ring angle further, there are discontinuities on the model. The points are represented jumping from their location on the left map to their x-inverted location on the right map. The meridian cutting the ring halfway, going straight left is the international date line. The regions between these meridians designate 24 time zones. https://blog.richmond.edu/livesofmaps/files/2014/10/Cassini-Projection-2.jpg The apparent motion of the sun follows a path...


 * summer and winter solstice
 * solar and lunar calendar
 * Mayan astrology
 * Chinese astrology
 * Greek astrology
 * constellations
 * procession of the equinoxes
 * We look into the sky and see endless spacetime. The universe is 930 hundred million light years across. Perhaps certain universes give rise to complex, intelligent forms of life that eventually gain the ability to create and shape unique new universes with cosmic artificial selection or simulate the
 * relativity, gravity, QED, String theory, Anthropic principle, Fermi Paradox, Simulated multiverse, Solar sytstem, Deep future, Kardashev scale
 * Geologic Time
 * Climate Weather and Season
 * Tectonics
 * GPS, radar, sonar
 * meteorology

Physical features
Cartography, Mountain, Sea, River, Biome

water channel/straight/gulf/bight/fjord/bay/inlet, estuary, river delta, freshwater-saltwater transition zone, swamp/marhs, bog/fen, bayou/wetlands

Nile, Amazon River, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Himalayas, Sahara

Arctic Ocean, Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Caribbean Sea, Caspian Sea, Congo River, Danube, Ganges, Great Barrier Reef, Great Lakes, Indus River, Lake Baikal, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Victoria, Mediterranean Sea, Mississippi River, Niger River, North Sea, Panama Canal, Rhine, Suez Canal, Southern Ocean, Volga River, Yangtze River, Huang He, Alps, Andes, Mt. Everest, Mount Kilimanjaro, Rocky Mountains

Cities
Beijing, Berlin, Jerusalem, London, Moscow, New York, Paris, Rome, St. Petersburg, Tokyo

Africa: Cape Town, Kinshasa, Lagos, Nairobi

Europe: Amsterdam, Athens, Brussels, Madrid, Vienna

Middle East: Baghdad, Cairo, Damascus, Dubai, Istanbul, Mecca, Tehran

Asia: Bangkok, Delhi, Dhaka, Hong Kong, Kolkata, Mumbai, Seoul, Shanghai

Oceania: Jakarta, Sydney

North America: Los Angeles, Washington, D.C.

Central America: Mexico City

South America: Bogotá, Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo,

Africa: Abuja, Accra, Addis Ababa, Alexandria, Algiers, Antananarivo, Bamako, Bissau, Brazzaville, Bujumbura, Casablanca, Conakry, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Durban, Gaborone, Harare, Johannesburg, Kampala, Khartoum, Libreville, Lilongwe, Lomé, Luanda, Lusaka, Malabo, Malé, Maputo, Maseru, Mbabane, Mogadishu, Monrovia, N'Djamena, Niamey, Nouakchott, Ouagadougou, Port Louis, Porto-Novo, Praia, Pretoria, Rabat, São Tomé, Tripoli, Tunis, Victoria-Seychelles, Windhoek, Yaoundé

Europe: Bratislava, Budapest, Lisbon, Ljubljana, Nicosia, Prague, Valletta, The Hague

Russia, Ukraine, Moldova and Belarus: Chișinău, Kharkiv, Kiev, Lviv, Minsk, Nizhny Novgorod, Novosibirsk, Odessa, Volgograd, Yekaterinburg

Northern Europe: Copenhagen, Helsinki, Oslo, Reykjavík, Stockholm, Birmingham, Dublin, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester

Italy France and Spain: Barcelona, Bordeaux, Florence, Genoa, Lyon, Marseille, Milan, Naples, Palermo, Seville, Strasbourg, Toulouse, Turin, Valencia, Venice

Germany Austria and Switzerland: Bern, Cologne, Dresden, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Geneva, Hamburg, Hanover, Munich, Nuremberg, Stuttgart, Zurich

Eastern Europe: Gdańsk, Kraków, Riga, Tallinn, Vilnius, Warsaw, Belgrade, Bucharest, Podgorica, Sarajevo, Skopje, Sofia, Thessaloniki, Tirana, Zagreb

Middle East: Abu Dhabi, Ahmedabad, Amman, Ankara, Beirut, Doha, Isfahan, Gaza, Hyderabad, Islamabad, Izmir, Jaipur, Jeddah, Kabul, Kuwait City, Muscat-Oman, Ramallah, Riyadh, Yerevan, Sana'a, Tel Aviv

Asia: Almaty, Ashgabat, Astana, Baku, Bangalore, Bishkek, Busan, Chengdu, Chennai, Chongqing, Colombo, Dili, Dushanbe, Guangzhou, Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Kathmandu, Kuala Lumpur, Kyoto, Lahore, Lhasa, Manama, Manila, Moroni-Comoros, Nagoya, Nanjing, Naypyidaw, New Delhi, Osaka, Phnom Penh, Pune, Pyongyang, Samarkand, Sapporo, Shenzhen, Surabaya, Surat, Taipei, Tashkent, Tbilisi, Thimphu, Tianjin, Ulaanbaatar, Vientiane, Vladivostok, Wuhan, Xi'an, Yangon, Yokohama

Oceania: Canberra, Funafuti, Honiara, Honolulu, Majuro, Melbourne, Nukuʻalofa, Palikir, Perth, Port Vila, Suva, Wellington

North America: Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Dallas, Denver, Detroit, Houston, Las Vegas, Miami, Montreal, New Orleans, Ottawa, Philadelphia, Phoenix, St. Louis, San Francisco, Seattle, Toronto, Vancouver

Central America: Bridgetown, Castries, Guadalajara, Guatemala City, Havana, Kingston-Jamaica, Kingstown, Managua, Monterrey, Nassau-Bahamas, Panama City, Port-au-Prince Port of Spain, Roseau, San Juan-Puerto Rico, San José-Costa Rica, San Salvador, Santo Domingo, St. George's-Grenada, St. John's-Antigua and Barbuda, Tegucigalpa

South America: Asunción, Brasília, Caracas, Curitiba, Georgetown-Guyana, La Paz, Lima, Montevideo, Paramaribo, Quito, Recife, Santiago, Sucre, Valparais

Countries (200+)
Brazil, China, France, Germany, India, Iran, Italy, Japan, Russia, Spain, United Kingdom, United States

Afghanistan, Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Bangladesh, Canada, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Cuba, Egypt, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Iraq, Israel, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Africa, South Korea, Sudan, Switzerland, Tanzania, Thailand, Turkey, Ukraine, Vatican City, Venezuela, Vietnam

ב History
The universe began 50,000 hundred million days ago with a rapid expansion from an infinitesimally small point. It is unknown how this point of energy came into existence. 10-43 seconds after inception the temperature is ten quadrillion ten quadrillion kelvin (10^32K), which immediately cools to a hundred thousand hundred million ten quadrillion kelvin (10^29K), allowing for the seperation of gravitation from the electrostrong force which then separates into the strong nuclear, weak nuclear, and electromagnetic forces yielding a sea of particles as the size of reality increases a hundred hundred million ten quadrillion-fold. The released potential energy forms a quark-antiquark-gluon plasma and the Higgs field bestows particles mass. A microsecond after time begins the temperature is a hundred hundred million kelvin and the plasma congeals into hadrons within a second of existence. Over ten seconds hadrons and antihadrons annihiliate and then leptons and antileptons annihilate. Due to an imbalance of 1 part in 16 hundred million, there is a predominance of baryons over antibaryons. For 17 minutes the universe is cool enough for baryons to be stable and hot enough for them to fuse into atomic nuclei like hydrogen and helium, after which it is too cold for fusion, leaving the universe at three parts hydrogen and one part helium, which collect over hundreds of thousands of years as clouds of gas that come together under gravitation and dark matter as nebulae. Electrons recombine at 4000K and emit photons, allowing for visible EM waves. After the dark ages of the cosmos, stars form in galactic clusters. The dust around stars forms planets. The formation of the Earth 16,600 hmda (4543mya) begins the period of Hades lasting an eon. It is hostile with volcanoing, frequent asteroid impacts, and no continents. A protoplanet collides into the Earth 16,200 hmda (4425mya) during the more than five indistinguishable-eras of the Hadean, resulting in a planetary magma ocean and 23.4° tilt in the Earth's rotational axis. The mantle and crust of both planets are ejected into the cosmos, creating a ring of debris that coalesces into our Moon. Asteroid impacts continue until 14,000 hmda (3800mya). The only geologic record of this period is some zircon crystals that withstand subduction and weathering. The decline of heavy asteroid bombardment begins the period of Archea lasting an eon. It results in RNA-based life and subsequent DNA-based bacteria and archaea during the four-variable-era period. The oldest fossils from 12,700 hmda (3480mya) are sedimentary microbial mats (sheets) of cyanobacteria in tidal flats formed as stromatolites. The remnants suggest flourishing single-cell organisms. The first continents formed in this period have remnants found in Africa, Canada, Australia called cratons fromed from microcontinental accretion colliding along ancient subduction zones similar to how India crashed into Asia to form the Himalayas or how North America will crash into Asia one or two hundred million years in the future. By the end of the Archean period the Earth has oceans and continents with rivers and lakes but more carbon dioxide and methane and less O2 than today. The appearance of oxygen from evolved cyanobacteria with photosynthetic capabilities begins the period of early complex-life (Proteroza) lasting an eon. Oxygen is initially absorbed by the oceans acting as a buffer, but eventually they become saturated and the atmosphere rapidly becomes oxygenated during the three variable-era period. This causes a mass extinction of obligate anaerobes. Eukaryotes appear. Banded iron formations come from this period.

Periods in the Proterozoic Eon: Siderian (2500-2300), Rhyacian (2300-2050), Orosirian (2050-1800), Satherian (1800-1600), Calymmian (1600-1400), Ectasian (1400-1200), Stenian (1200-1000), Tonian (1000-850), Cryogenian (850-635), Ediacaran (635-541).

The current period lasting an eon is the Phanerozoic. It includes the Paleozoic era, Mesozoic era, and Cenozoic era.

Periods in the Phanerozoic Eon: Cambrian (541-485.4), Ordovician (485.4-443.4), Silurian (443.4-419.2), Devonian (419.2-358.9), Carboniferous (358.9-298.9), Mississippian subperiod, Pennsylvanian subperiod, Permian (298.9-252.17), Triassic (252.17-201.3), Early Triassic, Middle Triassic, Late Triassic, Jurassic (201.3-145), Early Jurassic, Middle Jurassic, Late Jurassic, Cretaceous (145-66), Early Cretaceous, Late Cretaceous, Paleogene (66-23.03), Neogene (23.03-2.588), Quaternary (2.588-0).

The Cambrian period lasted between 1976-1773 hmda. Early Cambrian. Late Cambrian. The Ordovician lasted between 1773-1619. The Silurian lasted between 1619-1531. The Devonian lasted between 1531-1311. The Carboniferous lasted between 1311-1092. Mississippian subperiod. Pennsylvanian subperiod. The Permian lasted between 1092-921. The Triassic lasted between 921-735. Early Triassic. Middle Triassic. Late Triassic.

The Jurassic period lasted between 735-529. Early Jurassic. Middle Jurassic. Late Jurassic. The Cretaceous lasted between 529-241. Early Cretaceous. Late Cretaceous. The Paleocene epoch lasted between 241-84. The Paleogene? The Eogene? The Oligocene? The Neogene (84-9.4283 hmda) is composed of the Miocene and the Pleiocene epochs. The Pleistocene? The Holocene? The Anthropocene?

8-5 hundred tenthousand years ago (29.2-18.3 hmda) in eastern and central Africa (Chad, Ethiopia, Kenya) were bipedal ape-like hominin genera in swampy forest margins, woodlands, and savanna lakes/springs. Australopithecines arose about hundred tenthousand years ago (14.6 hmda), some of whom made stone tools 12 hmda. From these creatures around 11-7 hmda the genus Homo likely arose, characterized by full bipedalism, large social brains, and tool-capable hands. They traveled out and hunted medium-large animals like antelopes and horses. The Quaternary Period began 9.4283 hmda. Fire was probably used 3.65 hmda, increasing the food niche, and in Eurasia it is evident that hearths were used 1.8 hmda. The oldest human species fossil dates 1 hmda and the Neolithic Revolution occurred 4380000 days ago. Since the era of agriculture, human societies have social stratification leading to class hierarchies such as the patriarchy due to material conditions. Owing to males typically being stronger than females, communities with isolated families tend towards having a dominant male parent and homekeeping female parent. Agriculture spreads throughout the planet, making it difficult to maintain a hunter-gatherer lifestyle on smaller areas of land.

Mesopotamia, Sumer, Akkadia, Egypt

South Asia Hohenjo-Daro

China, Shang

Crete, Minoa

World History

 * 1995—Mar. 20: Twelve killed and over 5,000 injured when Japanese cult members released sarin nerve gas in Tokyo subway cars. Apr. 19: Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City bombed, killing 168. Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols convicted. McVeigh executed in 2001; Nichols sentenced to life in prison. Nov. 13: U.S. military compound in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, bombed by Islamic Movement of Change; 7 killed.
 * 1996—Jan. 31: Tamil Tigers drove explosives-laden truck into Central Bank in Colombo, Sri Lanka; 90 killed. June 25: Fuel truck exploded outside Khobar Towers, U.S. military complex in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia; killed 19. July 27: Bomb exploded in Atlanta, GA, during Olympic Games; killed 2, injured 100+. Extremist Eric Robert Rudolph sentenced to life in prison, 2005. Dec. 3: Bomb exploded on subway in Paris; 4 killed, 86 injured. Algerian Islamic extremist group suspected.
 * 1997—Nov. 17: Gamaa al-Islamiya militants killed 58 tourists and 4 Egyptians in Valley of the Kings nr. Luxor, Egypt.
 * 1998—Aug. 7: U.S. embassies in Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar-es- Salaam, Tanzania, bombed; 257 people killed. Al-Qaeda claimed responsibility. Aug. 15: IRA car bomb outside courthouse in Omagh, N. Ireland, killed 29. Oct. 18: National Liberation Army of Colombia blew up Ocensa oil pipeline; about 71 killed.
 * 1999—Sept. 9-16: Three buildings bombed in Moscow and Volgodonsk, Russia; about 300 killed. Chechen rebels blamed.
 * 2000—Oct. 12: Small boat assisting in docking of USS Cole exploded alongside it in Aden, Yemen; 17 U.S. sailors killed. Blamed on al-Qaeda.
 * 2001—Sept. 11: 19 al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked 4 U.S. domestic flights, including 2 planes that crashed into New York City’s World Trade Center towers and 1 into Pentagon. Total dead minus hijackers: 2,977; deadliest terrorist attack yet on U.S. soil. Sept.-Nov. 7: Letters tainted with deadly anthrax bacteria mailed through U.S. postal system killed 5, sickened 17; investigation concluded in 2010 that government-employed microbiologist Bruce Ivins, who committed suicide in 2008, was responsible.
 * 2002—Mar. 27: Suicide bombing at hotel in Netanya, Israel, during Passover celebration; 27 killed. Oct. 12: Resort in Bali, Indonesia, bombed; 202 dead. Jemaah Islamiah blamed. Oct. 23: Chechen guerrillas seized theater in Moscow, held 700+ hostages. Russian authorities gassed theater; most guerrillas and about 128 hostages killed. Dec. 27: Chechen rebels plowed truck bomb into pro-Russian govt. headquarters in Grozny, Chechnya; 80 killed, 152 injured.
 * 2003—May 12-13: Al-Qaeda militants detonated car bombs at 3 residential complexes used by Westerners in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; 34 killed. May 16: Five explosions in Casablanca, Morocco; 44 killed. Blamed on al-Qaeda. Aug. 19: UN headquarters in Baghdad bombed by truck; 22 killed, incl. UN envoy to Iraq. Aug. 25: 2 bombs exploded in taxis in Mumbai, India; 46 killed. Islamic militants suspected. Nov. 15: Two synagogues in Istanbul, Turkey, bombed; 25 killed. Nov. 20: British consulate and offices of HSBC bombed in Istanbul, Turkey; 27 killed. Blamed on al-Qaeda. Dec. 5: Suicide bombing on commuter train in Yessentuki, Russia; 44 killed. Blamed on Chechen rebels.
 * 2004—Feb. 6: Bomb exploded in Moscow subway; 39 killed, 130 injured. Chechen rebels blamed. Mar. 11: Al-Qaeda cell bombed 4 commuter trains during morning rush hour in Madrid, Spain; 191 killed, about 1,200 injured. May 29: Al-Qaeda militants stormed foreigner compound in Khobar, Saudi Arabia, taking hostages; 22 killed. Aug. 24: Chechen suicide bombers caused crash of two Russian passenger planes in diff. parts of Russia; 90 killed. Sept. 1: Chechen militants seized school in Beslan, in North Ossetia, Russia; held 1,000+ hostage for 3 days before Russian troops stormed school. About 330 killed, incl. 27 hostage-takers.
 * 2005—July 7: Four bombs exploded on 3 separate subways and 1 bus in London, Eng.; 52 killed, about 700 injured. July 23: Three car bombs explode nr. Sharm el-Sheik, Egypt, resorts; about 90 killed. Nov. 9: 3 suicide bombings targeted hotels in Amman, Jordan; killed 56. Al-Qaeda in Iraq took responsibility.
 * 2006—July 11: 8 explosions struck 7 different trains and 1 station of public commuter rail system in Mumbai, India; 207 killed. Lashkar-e-Qahhar (Army of Terror) claimed responsibility.
 * 2007—Feb. 19: Train traveling between New Delhi and border with Pakistan caught fire, 68 killed; Indian ministers blamed Muslim militants for trying to disrupt peace talks between India and Pakistan. Dec. 11: Two coordinated car bombs went off outside govt. building and UN office building in Algiers, Algeria; 41 killed, incl. 17 UN employees, 170 wounded.
 * 2008—Sept. 20: Suicide bomber in truck set off explosion outside of Marriott Hotel in Islamabad, Pakistan; 53 killed, 271 wounded. Nov. 26-29: Series of attacks and bombings on luxury hotels and high-profile targets in Mumbai, India; 171 killed, 300 injured.
 * 2009—Feb. 20: Suicide bomber targeted Shiite funeral in Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan; 30 killed. Nov. 5: U.S. Army major opened fire on Fort Hood (TX) military base, killing 13 and wounding 30+. Dec. 25: A Nigerian man failed to blow up a flight from Amsterdam to Detroit with bomb hidden in his underpants.
 * 2010—Jan. 1: Taliban suicide bomber killed more than 100 on playground in NW Pakistan. Mar. 29: Two female Chechen separatists detonated suicide bombs at two landmark Moscow subway stations, killing at least 40. July 9: Suicide bombers targeted tribal elders in Mohmand, Pakistan, killing more than 100. July 11: Several bombs claimed by al-Shabab exploded simultaneously in Kampala, Uganda, killing more than 70 people who had gathered to watch the World Cup final broadcast.


 * 2011—Jan. 24: Suicide bomber killed 35 in Moscow’s Domodedovo Airport, location chosen to maximize deaths of foreigners. July 22: Anders Behring Breivik, right-wing Norwegian extremist, set off a bomb in van outside govt. buildings in Oslo, then massacred dozens of young people at a summer camp on Tyrifjorden Lake, bringing death toll to 77.
 * 2012—Jan. 21: Series of attacks by Islamist extremist group Boko Haram killed more than 185 in Kano, Nigeria. May 21: Suicide bomber claimed by al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) killed more than 100 soldiers during military parade rehearsal nr. Yemeni presidential palace. Aug. 5: White supremacist fatally shot 6 worshippers at a Sikh temple before killing himself, Oak Creek, WI. Sept. 11: Terrorists stormed U.S. embassy in Benghazi, Libya, killing 4 Americans, including U.S. Amb. J. Christopher Stevens.
 * 2013—Apr. 15: Two bombs exploded nr. Boston Marathon finish line, killing 3 and injuring 264; 4-day search ended in death of suspect Tamerlan Tsarnaev and capture of his brother, Dzhokhar, a naturalized Chechen immigrant. Sept. 21: Al-Shabab, a Somali militant group, killed up to 70 people and wounded at least 175 at a Nairobi, Kenya, shopping mall.
 * 2014—Apr.-May: Islamist extremist group Boko Haram kidnapped more than 250 girls from schools in Nigeria; killed more than 150 villagers in Gamboru. Dec. 15: Nine Taliban gunmen attacked military-affiliated school in Peshawar, Pakistan, executing about 150, including 132 children.
 * 2015—Jan. 7: Gunmen stormed Paris offices of Charlie Hebdo, a satirical newspaper, killing 12. Two days later, French police killed suspects, brothers who identified themselves as belonging to AQAP. Mar. 18: Gunmen killed 21 tourists and a police officer at Tunisia’s National Bardo Museum. Several terrorist groups claimed credit. Apr. 2: Al-Shabab militants killed 147 students at Kenya’s Garissa Univ. after separating Christian and Muslim students. June 17: Lone white-supremacist gunman killed 9, incl. a state senator, in a historically black church in Charleston, SC. Oct. 31: Terrorists downed a Russian charter flight shortly after takeoff from Egyptian resort, killing all 224 onboard. Egyptian affiliate of the Sunni extremist group the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) said it smuggled a soda-can bomb onto plane. Nov. 13: Series of coordinated suicide bombings and other attacks by ISIS on Paris cafes, a soccer stadium, and a concert hall killed 137 (incl. 7 attackers); wounded 350+. Dec. 2: A heavily armed married couple opened fire on the husband’s coworkers at a holiday party for San Bernardino (CA) County Health Dept., killing 14, wounding 21.
 * 2016—Mar. 22: Three explosions in Brussels, two at the airport and one at a busy subway station, killed 35 people (incl. 3 bombers) and injured 300+. ISIS claimed credit; investigators linked perpetrators to 2015 Paris attacks. June 12: Lone gunman killed 49 people and wounded 53 at a gay nightclub in Orlando, FL. July 7: A heavily armed man shot and killed five police officers and wounded seven other officers and two civilians in downtown Dallas, TX, during peaceful protest. July 14: Tunisian-born man drove rented truck into Bastille Day crowds in Nice, France, killing 86 and injuring 400+. Dec. 19: Tunisian man on Germany’s terror watch list drove hijacked truck through outdoor market in Berlin, killing 12; 56+ injured.
 * 2017—May 22: Suicide bomber detonated in entrance hall of Manchester, England, arena as fans left a concert by U.S. singer Ariana Grande, killing 22; 800 injured. ISIS claimed responsibility. June 3: Three assailants in a van hit pedestrians on London Bridge before exiting vehicle and attacking people with knives; 8 killed and 48+ injured. Aug. 18: A Moroccan man killed 2 and injured 8 with a knife in Turku, Finland; country’s first terror attack. Oct. 14: Two truck bombs detonated in Mogadishu, Somalia, leaving 512 dead, 300+ injured. Blamed on al-Shabab. Nov. 24: Attack on Sufi mosque in Bir al-Abed, Egypt, by extremists affiliated with ISIS, killed 311 people and injured 100+ others.
 * 2018—Oct. 27: Man opened fire inside of Tree of Life Congregation synagogue in Pittsburgh, PA, killing 11 worshippers.
 * 2019—Mar. 15: Australian gunman attacked two mosques in Christchurch, New Zealand, killing 51. Apr. 21: Nine Muslim extremists with alleged links to Islamic State staged suicide bombings in churches and hotels on Easter Sunday in Sri Lanka, killing more than 250.
 * 1995—Nov. 4: Israeli Prime Min. Yitzhak Rabin shot by Jewish extremist at peace rally in Tel Aviv.
 * 1996—Oct. 2: Andrei Lukanov, former Bulgarian prime min., shot outside of Sofia home.
 * 1998—Apr. 26: Guatemalan Roman Catholic Bishop Juan José Gerardi Conedera, human rights champion, beaten to death in Guatemala City.
 * 1999—Apr. 9: Niger Pres. Ibrahim Bare Mainassara ambushed, killed by dissident soldiers. Oct. 27: Armenian Prime Min. Vazgen Sarkissian, with 7 others, shot during session of parliament.
 * 2001—Jan. 16: Dem. Rep. of Congo Pres. Laurent Kabila shot to death by bodyguard at pres. palace in Kinshasa. June 1: Nepal’s King Birendra, Queen Aiswarya, and 7 other royals fatally shot by Crown Prince Dipendra, who then killed self.
 * 2002—July 6: Afghan Vice Pres. Haji Abdul Qadir shot outside his office in Kabul.
 * 2003—Mar. 12: Serbian Prime Min. Zoran Djindjic shot by paramilitary snipers outside govt. headquarters in Belgrade.
 * 2004—Feb. 13: Former Chechen Pres. Zelimkhan Yandarbiyev killed after car exploded in Qatar. Mar. 22: Sheik Ahmed Yassin, spiritual leader of Hamas, by Israeli missile attack in Gaza City. May 9: Chechen Pres. Akhmad Kadyrov by bomb at WWII memorial service in Grozny. Nov. 2: Filmmaker Theo van Gogh, critic of Islam and great-grandnephew of painter Vincent van Gogh, shot and stabbed by Muslim militant in Amsterdam.
 * 2005—Jan. 4: Baghdad Gov. Ali al-Haidari gunned down by insurgents in Baghdad, Iraq.
 * 2007—Aug. 2: Oakland Post editor Chauncey Bailey, who was investigating financial status of Your Black Muslim Bakery, shot in Oakland, CA. Dec. 27: Benazir Bhutto, former Pakistani prime min. and first female elected leader of a Muslim state, by bomb and gunman later linked to then-Pres. Pervez Musharraf.
 * 2008—Feb. 12: Imad Mughniyeh, top Hezbollah commander and reputed mastermind of the 1983 bombing of U.S. embassy in Beirut, by car bomb in Damascus, Syria. Mughniyeh had been on FBI’s Most Wanted Terrorist list. Oct. 23: Ivo Pukanic, editor-in-chief of Croatian political newspaper Nacional, killed in Zagreb when bomb exploded nr. his car.
 * 2009—Mar. 2: Guinea-Bissau’s longtime Pres. João Bernardo Vieira shot by army troops outside his home in Bissau. May 31: Dr. George Tiller, one of the few doctors in the U.S. to perform abortions late in pregnancy, shot to death in his Wichita, KS, church by anti-abortion extremist.
 * 2011—Sept. 20: Burhanuddin Rabbani, leader of Afghanistan’s High Peace Council and a former pres., killed in his Kabul home by assassin with explosives hidden in his turban.
 * 2012—Jan. 11: Iranian nuclear scientist Mostafa Ahmadi Roshan killed by car bomb.
 * 2014—Sept. 1: U.S. airstrikes killed Ahmed Abdi Godane, leader of Somalia-based Islamist militant group al-Shabab.
 * 2015—Feb. 27: Boris Y. Nemtsov, Russian opposition leader and former first deputy prime minister, shot near Red Square.
 * 2016—June 16: UK Labour MP Jo Cox shot and stabbed in West Yorkshire by far-right assailant. Dec. 20: Turkish police officer shot Russian ambassador to Turkey, Andrei Karlov, in Ankara. Apparently motivated by Russian military involvement in Syria, the attack was caught on widely distributed video.
 * 2017—Feb. 13: Kim Jong Nam, half-brother to N. Korean leader Kim Jong Un, killed in chemical nerve agent attack at Kuala Lumpur airport. Two women, charged in attack by Malaysian authorities, blamed coercion by N. Korean agents.
 * 2018—Feb. 21: Slovakian journalist Ján Kuciak and fiancée shot dead in their home. Mass protests forced resignation of prime minister. Oct. 2: Saudi journalist Jamal Khashoggi, a U.S. resident, was murdered inside of the Saudi consulate in Istanbul, Turkey; U.S. and other intelligence agencies pointed to Saudi crown prince Mohammed bin Salman’s involvement

Regional

 * (formerly Zaire) is in the center of Africa. It has the capital (and largest city) Kinshasa. It has decent ties with Kenya and Tanzania, and negative ties with Rwanda.
 * Ⓓ Lunda State, Luba State, Kingdom of Kongo, Yeke Kingdom
 * Sao/Kanem/Bornu/Baguirmi/Wadai
 * 🇨🇫 lies north of DRC. It has the capital Bangui.
 * 🇹🇩 lies in the Sahel north of the Central African Republic and borders lake Chad to its southwest. It has cold ties with Libya, Sudan, Nigeria, and Niger.
 * 🇨🇲 is west of the Central African Republic. It has the capital Yaoundé and largest city Douala.
 * 🇬🇶 borders the west of Gabon. It consists of an island called Bioko with the capital Malabo northwest of the continental region with the largest city Bata and a volcanic island Annobón south of the equator. It is the only country to officially use the Spanish language. It has good ties with Gabon, Cameroon, and Nigeria.   lies between the islands, with the capital São Tomé. It has Portuguese influence.
 * lies west of the DRC. It has the capital Brazzaville. It has good relations with Gabon and Cameroon and Ivory Coast.
 * 🇬🇦 lies west of the Republic of Congo. It has the capital Libreville. It has great ties with Cameroon. It has good ties with Morocco and Trinidad & Tobego.
 * 🇪🇹 is on the Horn of Africa. It has the capital Addis Ababa.
 * Punt/Aksum/Shilluk/Luba/Makuria/Kitara/Bunyoro/Buganda/Bachwezi
 * 🇰🇪 lies south of Ethopia. It has the capital Nairobi.
 * 🇺🇬 lies east of the DRC. It has the capital Kampala.
 * 🇷🇼 lies east of the DRC. It has the capital Kigali.
 * 🇧🇮 lies east of the DRC. It has the capital Gitega and largest city Bujumbura.
 * 🇪🇷 Eritrea lies northeast of Ethiopia. It has the capital Asmara. Eritrea and the Horn have conflict with Ethiopia.
 * 🇩🇯 Djibouti lies northeast of Ethiopia and has the capital Djibouti
 * 🇸🇴 Somalia lies northeast of Ethioopia. It has the capital Mogadishu. Ⓔ It is in Civil War. Ⓕ It is an ongoing conflict.
 * Emblem of Somaliland.svg Somaliland is a de facto state. It has the capital Hargeisa.
 * 🇹🇿 Tanzania It has the capital de jure Dodoma. The largest city is Dar es Salaam.
 * 🇲🇬 Seal of Madagascar.svg Madagascar is on the southeast coast of Africa. It has the capital Antananarivo.
 * Merina/Zanzibar
 * 🇸🇨 lies northeast of Madagascar. It has four main islands and the capital Victoria. It is the least populous country in Africa.
 * 🇰🇲 Seal of the Comoros.svg Comoros lies northwest of Madagascar. It has three main islands and has the capital Moroni.
 * is a French territory lying northwest of Madagascar and is a French territory lying east of Madagascar.
 * 🇲🇺 lies east of Madagascar. It has four main islands and the capital Port Louis.
 * 🇿🇦 is in the South of Africa. The executive capital is Pretoria, close to the largest city Johannesburg. However, Bloemfontein is the judicial capital and Cape Town is the legislative capital.
 * Matupa
 * 🇱🇸 lies within South Africa. It has the capital Maseru.
 * (formerly Swaziland) lies east of South Africa and west of Mozambique. It has the executive capital and largest city Mbabane and legislative capital Lobamba.
 * 🇳🇦 lies northwest of South Africa. It has the capital Windhoek.
 * 🇧🇼 lies north of South Africa. It has the capital Gaborone.
 * 🇿🇲 lies north of Zimbabwe and south of the DRC. It has the capital Lusaka.
 * 🇲🇼 (formerly Nyasaland) lies north of Mozambique and east of Zambia. It has the capital Lilongwe.
 * 🇿🇼  (formerly Rhodesia) lies northeast of South Africa. It has the capital Harare.
 * 🇲🇿 Emblem of Mozambique.svg Mozambique lies east of South Africa across from Madagascar. It has the capital Maputo.
 * 🇦🇴 Emblem of Angola.svg Angola lies southwest of the DRC. It has the capital Luanda. It has great ties to Brazil, Portugal and Mozambique.
 * 🇳🇬 is on Africa's Gulf of Guinea. It has the capital Abuja and largest city Lagos. It is the most populous country in Africa.
 * Bantu/Kongo/Serer/Keita/Songhai/Sokoto/Akan/Dahomey/Yoruba/Hausa/Songhai/Wolof
 * 🇳🇪 lies north of Nigeria. It has the capital Niamey.
 * 🇧🇫 lies southeast of Niger. It has the capital Ouagadougou.
 * 🇲🇱 lies east of Mauritania and west of Niger. It has the capital Bamako.
 * 🇸🇳 lies south of Mauritania. It has the capital Dakar.
 * 🇬🇲 lies between Senegal. It has the capital Banjul and largest city Serekunda. It is the smallest country in Africa.
 * 🇬🇼 lies south of Senegal. It has the capital Bissau.
 * 🇨🇻 Coat of arms of Cape Verde.svg Cape Verde lies on the west coast of northwest Africa along with the Azoles Canaries, Maderia, and Savage Isles. It has the capital Praia.
 * 🇬🇳 lies southwest of Mali. It has the capital Conakry.
 * 🇸🇱 lies southwest of Guinea. It has the capital Freetown.
 * 🇱🇷 lies west of the Ivory Coast. It has the capital Monrovia.
 * lies south of Mali. It has the political capital Yamoussoukro and economic capital and largest city Abidjan.
 * Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
 * 🇬🇭 lies east of the Ivory Coast. It has the capital Accra.
 * 🇹🇬 lies east of Ghana. It has the capital Lomé.
 * 🇧🇯 lies east of Togo. It has the capital Porto-Novo and largest city Cotonou.
 * 🇩🇿 Algeria is next to 🇹🇳, and 🇱🇾 The emblem on the passport of Libya.svg Libya. The Atlas Mountains pass through Maghreb, which also has 🇲🇦 , 🇪🇭 Western Sahara and 🇲🇷 Seal of Mauritania (2018).svg Mauritania. The capital and largest city of Mauritania is Nouakchott. The capital of Morocco is Rabat and the largest city is Casablanca. Morocco controls Western Sahara, the largest city of which is Laayoune. The capital of Algeria is Algiers. It is the largest country in Africa. The capital of Tunisia is Tunis, and the capital of Libya is Tripoli. The culture of Maghreb has couscous has a staple food. Since 10000BC, Maghreb is inhabited by the Amazighs people and united as the kingdom of Numidia. Ⓐ The Phoenicians create the new city on the sea border called Carthage, which has become Tunis today. Close to Utica Hippone. They have relations and trading with other places bordering the Mediterranean sea. Ⓑ Later they are influenced by the Roman Empire, but are invaded by Vandals, so they are ruled by the Byzantine empire. Then the Umayyad, Abbasid, and Fatimid Caliphates rule. Ⓒ Then Almoravid dynasty, Almohad Caliphate, Hammadid dynasty, Ziridv dynasty, Marinid dynasty, Zayyanid dynasty, and Wattasid dynasty.
 * Mauritania is home to the Moors.
 * Western Sahara is mainly controlled by Morocco. Morocco also claims the cities Melilla and Ceuta bordering the Iberian peninsula, which are controlled by Spain.
 * Algeria. The Arab Spring protests begin in Tunisia. Since 2014 there is an Arab Winter.
 * Since the 2011 Arab Spring protests, Libya is in crisis and civil war.
 * Egypt is a region east of Maghreb in Africa which connects to the Levant in Asia. It is part of the Mashriq and home to the oldest and longest-lasting civilization in history. The country 🇪🇬 has the capital Cairo. South of Egypt is 🇸🇩  and south of Sudan is 🇸🇸 . Sudan has the capital Khartoum. South Sudan has the capital Juba. Egypt organize prehistoric civilization for a million days. Hunter-gatherers and fishermen create a centrally organized society with agriculture at Nubia near the Nile river around the 50Q days before the calendar. King Menes founds the first of the dynasties in 57.1Q, which lasted for 3000 years. During the Old Kingdom the Pyramid of Djoser and the Pyramid of Giza are built. This is the only of the remaining Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The region is ruled by Achaemenid Persians, becomes the Ptolemaic Kingdom under the Romans, is conquered by Arabs bringing Islam, then is conquered by the Ottomans. In 1869 the French come and built the Suez canal. In 1914 it becomes a British protectorate and in 1953 becomes a Republic. Between 2011-14 is the Egyptian Crisis.
 * 🇮🇷 Emblem of Iran.svg Iran, also called Persia, is south of the Caspian Sea and North of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman. It has the capital Tehran.
 * 🇮🇶 lies west of Iran, north of Saudi Arabia, and south of Turkey. It has the capital Baghdad. It contains Kurdistan. It is in Civil War
 * 🇮🇱 is in the Levant between Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan. It has the capital Jerusalem.
 * is in the same region as Israel, currently in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. It has the capital East Jerusalem and administrative center Ramallah. The largest city is Gaza City.
 * 🇸🇦 Emblem of Saudi Arabia.svg Saudi Arabia is in the Arabian Peninsula between the Red Sea and Persian Gulf. It has the capital Riyadh.
 * 🇾🇪 is in civil war. 🇴🇲 Oman, 🇦🇪, 🇶🇦 Qatar
 * Since the 2011 Arab Spring protests,  is in civil war, effecting other countries.
 * 🇹🇷 Emblem of Turkey.svg Turkey
 * Kipchak (Bashkir, Tatars), Oghur (Chuvash), Yakuts (Sakha)
 * Menderes has a great economy owing to the Marshall Plan. After censorship laws are in place, Gürsel leads a coup on 243,7082. History.
 * Caucasus/Achaemenid Empire/Persia
 * , 🇦🇿
 * 🇵🇰 Ⓓ Ⓔ The Sikh empire forms when Aurangzeb dies. There are expeditions against the Mughals and Pashtuns led by the growing Sikh Khalsa army, which splits into semi-independent misls controlling various areas. Misl leaders of the army are of Punjab nobility. When Ranjit Singh is coronated, the army disbands and the political state is unified. In 1839 the British take Karachi as a military base with a port. The First Afghan War occurs. In 1843 Sindh is taken and the East India Company takes control of the country through wars and treaties, including those against the Bolch Talpur dynasty which ended with the Battle of Miani, the Anglo-Sikh War, and the Anglo-Afghan Wars. After the Indian Rebellion of 1857 (Sepoy Mutiny), Queen Victoria of the British empire takes control. It is divided into the Sind Division, Punjab Province, Baluchistan Agency, and various princely states including the largest, Bahawalpur. Sindh is subjected under the Bombay presidency, said to be neglected by it, though it has a governor at Karachi. The Punjab, including the Indian state, is subjected under the Bengal presidency technically ruling at Calcutta, but in practice is ruled by British officials. The Board of Administration consists of the two siblings Henry Lawrence, and John Lawrence, and Charles Genville Mansel. The overseen "Young Men" are the first's acclaimed officers. After rebellion, the second is the first Governor of Punjab. The Punjab Canal Colonies begin in the 1880s to irrigate land into farmland to relieve population pressure. The Baluchistan Agency formed of princely and tribal states is lightly ruled. Quetta is built up as a military base near the border in case of Afghan or Russian invasion; in 1935 there is an earthquake. In 1876 the far north is made a chief commissioner's province and in 1893 the Durand Line, being the border with Afghanistan is fixed. Railway construction occurs between 1850-1900. Karachi largely expands under British rule, the East India Company conquers Sindh in the Battle of Hyderabad and Battle of Miani in 1843, as well as Punjab and easter Khyber pakhtunkhwa in the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849. The British Raj conquers Southern Balochistan with the Treaty of Kalat in 1876 and the British empire conquers Western Balochistan in the Second Anglo-Sikh War with the Treaty of Gandamak in 1879.
 * Between 1893 and 1947 Pakistan is part of the British Indian Empire.
 * Ⓔ In 1979 Osama bin Laden joins Mujahideen and funds them, becoming popular among Arabs. Ⓕ In 2004, there is an insurgency in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. In 2007 December, Baitulla Mehsud leads Tehrik-i-Taliban in Pakistan.
 * 🇦🇫 Afghanistan known as Ariana or Bactria, in the middle ages known as Khorasan, is a constitutional monarchy ruled under King Zahir Shah. Ⓔ A unified kingdom is established in the 1900s. On 1979 December 24 the Soviet army invades Afghanistan to secure the PDPA. There are several civil wars. Ⓕ The United States invades to remove Taliban hosting al-Quaeda. On August 31, 2021 the US finishes removing its troops.
 * 🇰🇿 Emblem of Kazakhstan.svg Kazakhstan
 * 🇰🇬 Emblem of Kyrgyzstan.svg Kyrgyzstan
 * 🇹🇯 Emblem of Tajikistan.svg Tajikistan
 * 🇹🇲 Emblem of Turkmenistan.svg Turkmenistan
 * 🇺🇿 Emblem of Uzbekistan.svg Uzbekistan
 * 🇮🇳 Emblem of India.svg India
 * 🇳🇵 Nepal
 * 🇱🇰 Emblem of Sri Lanka.svg Sri Lanka, 🇲🇻 Emblem of Maldives.svg Maldives is the smallest and least populous country in Asia.
 * 🇧🇩 National emblem of Bangladesh.svg Bangladesh
 * 🇧🇹 Emblem of Bhutan.svg Bhutan
 * 🇹🇭 Emblem of Thailand.svg Thailand
 * Emblem of Brunei.svg Brunei
 * 🇰🇭 Emblem of General Staff of Cambodia.png Cambodia
 * East Timor
 * Laos
 * 🇲🇾
 * 🇲🇲
 * Vietnam
 * 🇸🇬
 * 🇮🇩
 * 🇳🇿
 * 🇵🇬 Papua New Guinea
 * 🇸🇧
 * 🇼🇸
 * 🇫🇯
 * 🇰🇮
 * 🇫🇲 Federated States of Micronesia
 * 🇲🇭 Marshall Islands
 * 🇳🇷
 * 🇵🇼 Palau
 * 🇹🇴 Tonga Royal Standard of Tonga.svg
 * 🇹🇻
 * 🇻🇺 Vanuatu
 * Hawaiʻi
 * 🇦🇺
 * 🇵🇭
 * Ⓕ Ramos administration. History. Estrada. Arroyo. Aquino. Duterte.
 * 🇯🇵 Japan
 * 🇰🇵 Korea
 * 🇨🇳 China
 * Neolithic
 * Ⓐ Xia 夏, Shang 商 (Yin 殷), Zhōu 周 is the longest Zhongguo dynasty, Western Zhou 1045-771 BC, Qin state in Eastern Zhou 771-256 BC, The Qin 秦 dynasty marks the beginning of imperial China. Eighteen Kingdoms were Hàn 漢, Yong 雍, Sai 塞, Di 翟, Linjiang 臨江, Hán 韓, Henan 河南, Wei 魏, Zhao/Dai 趙/代, Yan 燕, Liaodong 遼東, Yin 殷, Changshan 常山, Hengshan 衡山, Jiujiang 九江,Chu 楚, Qi 齊/齐, Jibei 濟北, and Jiaodong 膠東. Han 漢 dynasty (202 BC-220 AD) extends into Vietnam. Kingdoms: Wu 吳, Huainan 淮南, Chang'an 長安, Changsha 长沙, Huaiyang 淮陽, Chu 楚, Liang 梁, Qi 齊, Zhao 趙, Dai 代, and Yan 燕.
 * Ⓑ Chu-Han contention (206-202 BC) returns to Western Han 西漢 (202 BC-9 AD), interrupted by Xin 新莽, returning to Eastern Han 東漢 (25-220). Three Kingdoms: Wei 曹魏 (220-266) in the north, Han 蜀漢 (221-263) in the west, and Eastern Wu 吳 (222-280). Northern and Southern, Sui, Tang
 * Ⓒ Five Dynasties & 10 Kingdoms. The Song dynasty marks the beginning of early modern China, Liao, Western Xia, Jin
 * Ⓓ Yuan, Ming, The Qing dynasty marks the beginning of Modern China, Republic
 * Ⓔ Deng Xiaoping, Tiananmen Square Ⓕ Republic of China. Falun Gong. Hu Wen.
 * North: Beijing (北京), Tianjin (天津), Hebei (河北), Shanxi (山西), Ningxia (宁夏), Inner Mongolia (内蒙古), Liaoning (辽宁), including Shengyang (瀋陽), Jilin (吉林), Heilongjiang (黑龙江), including Harbin (哈爾濱), and former Suiyuan (綏遠), Chahar (察哈爾), Rehe/Jehol (熱河), Liaobei/Liaopeh (遼北), Xingan/Hiangan (興安), Nenjiang/Nunkiang (嫩江), Hejiang/Hokiang (合江), Songjiang/Sungkiang (松江), Andong/Antung (安東), Dalian (大連)
 * Center: Henan (河南), Hubei (湖北), Hunan (湖南), East: Shanghai (上海), Jiangsu (江苏). Zhejiang (浙江), Anhui (安徽), Fujian (福建), Jiangxi (江西), Shandong (山东)
 * West: Chongqing (重庆), Sichuan (四川), Guizhou (贵州), Yunnan (云南), Tibet (西藏), including Xikang/Sikang (西康), Shaanxi (陕西), Gansu (甘肃), Qinghai (青海), Xinjiang (新疆)
 * South: Guangxi (广西), Guangdong (广东), Hainan (海南), Hong Kong (香港), Macau (澳门) Ⓐ Nanyue 南越/南粵 204-111 BC
 * 🇲🇳 Mongolia
 * Siberia
 * 🇷🇺 Russia (Pomors, Yujaghir)
 * The Soviet Union  starts to break into 15 states when Lithuania, 🇱🇻, and 🇪🇪  declare independence against Mikhail Gorbachev in August 1991. He resigns in December as Russia, 🇺🇦 , and 🇧🇾  declare the Soviet Union dead. The Warsaw Pact and Council for Mutual Economic Assistance disband and former Soviet republics join Commonwealth of Independent States. President Boris Yeltson reboots economy under free-market system. Military invades Muslim-majority Russian republic of Chechnya in December 1994 after declaring independece and withdraws after 1996 cease-fire. Ⓕ Russia suppresses Muslim insurgents in Russian republic of Dagestan and enters Chechnya to fight separatists again. Yeltsin resigns in December 1999 and Prime Minister Vladimir Putin takes over.
 * 🇫🇮 Finland (Baltic Finns, Izhorians, Vespians, Votes, Permian (Komi, Udmurt), Sámi, Ugrian (Khanty, Mansi), Volga Finn (Mari, Mordvins))
 * 🇳🇴 Sápmi
 * 🇸🇪
 * 🇮🇸
 * 🇩🇰 🇬🇱  Kalaalit Nunaat
 * 🇵🇱 is named for its fields, pole. People intermittently use stone tools to procure mammal meat between recurring glaciation. Fireplaces, bone tools, artifacts are made. Ochre pigment from hematite is widely traded. The climate warms 7 thousand years before the calendar, bringing forests and wetlands and populations from the west. Women gather roots, herbs, nuts, bird eggs, mollusks, fruit, and honey. Hunters use traps, javelins, bows and arrows, fishing hooks, boats, and dogs. People make baskets, rope, needles, amber animal figurines, and graves. Neolithic: Agricultural communities arrive from the Danube river area 3500 years before the calendar. (5500BC) The Copper Age lasts between 2900BC-2300BC. The Bronze Age beings around 2300BC. Ⓐ The Iron Age begins around 750/700BC Ⓑ
 * Lusatians were invaded by Scythians in the 6th century BC. Pomeranian culture. La Tène culture
 * Ⓒ House of Piast: Mieszko I (~963-992) is duke of Poland; Poland is Christianized in 966. Expansion under three with name Bolesław (reigns not consecutive): Bolesław I the Brave, son, (992-1025), crowned first king of Poland in 1025; Bolesław II the Bold, great-grandson, (1058-1079), exiled after killing bishop of Krakow, Stanisław (who becomes a patron saint of Poland); Bolesław III the Wry-Mouthed, nephew, (1102-1138) divides Poland among four sons with oldest also in control of crown. Period of feudal division followed. A Polish duke, Conrad of Masovia, asks the Teutonic Knights—a German military religious order—to crusade against Prussia in 1226. Teutonic Knights conquer lands; thereafter warred with Poland. Mongols/Tatars invade Poland in 1241. Ⓓ Władysław I, reunites most Polish territories and is crowned king in 1320 (1306-1333) Casimir III the Great, son, develops the economy, cultural life, and foreign policy. He has no male heir (1333-1370). He is succeeded by his nephew Louis I, also Louis I the Great of Hungary (1370-1382)  Jadwiga, daughter, (1384-1399)
 * 🇵🇱 is named for its fields, pole. People intermittently use stone tools to procure mammal meat between recurring glaciation. Fireplaces, bone tools, artifacts are made. Ochre pigment from hematite is widely traded. The climate warms 7 thousand years before the calendar, bringing forests and wetlands and populations from the west. Women gather roots, herbs, nuts, bird eggs, mollusks, fruit, and honey. Hunters use traps, javelins, bows and arrows, fishing hooks, boats, and dogs. People make baskets, rope, needles, amber animal figurines, and graves. Neolithic: Agricultural communities arrive from the Danube river area 3500 years before the calendar. (5500BC) The Copper Age lasts between 2900BC-2300BC. The Bronze Age beings around 2300BC. Ⓐ The Iron Age begins around 750/700BC Ⓑ
 * Lusatians were invaded by Scythians in the 6th century BC. Pomeranian culture. La Tène culture
 * Ⓒ House of Piast: Mieszko I (~963-992) is duke of Poland; Poland is Christianized in 966. Expansion under three with name Bolesław (reigns not consecutive): Bolesław I the Brave, son, (992-1025), crowned first king of Poland in 1025; Bolesław II the Bold, great-grandson, (1058-1079), exiled after killing bishop of Krakow, Stanisław (who becomes a patron saint of Poland); Bolesław III the Wry-Mouthed, nephew, (1102-1138) divides Poland among four sons with oldest also in control of crown. Period of feudal division followed. A Polish duke, Conrad of Masovia, asks the Teutonic Knights—a German military religious order—to crusade against Prussia in 1226. Teutonic Knights conquer lands; thereafter warred with Poland. Mongols/Tatars invade Poland in 1241. Ⓓ Władysław I, reunites most Polish territories and is crowned king in 1320 (1306-1333) Casimir III the Great, son, develops the economy, cultural life, and foreign policy. He has no male heir (1333-1370). He is succeeded by his nephew Louis I, also Louis I the Great of Hungary (1370-1382)  Jadwiga, daughter, (1384-1399)

Wichí (Güisnay, Nocten, Vejoz)
 * House of Jagiello: Władysław Jagiello (Władysław II), grand duke of Lithuania, marries Jadwiga, 1386, and rules jointly (1386-1434) Poland and Lithuania unite; Lithuania converts to Christianity. Defeats Teutonic Knights at Grunwald (Tannenberg), 1410. Władysław III, son, also king of Hungary. Fights the Turks; killed in Battle of Varna, 1444. (1434-1444) Casimir IV, brother, put son Władysław on throne of Bohemia and Hungary. Victorious over Teutonic Knights; signed treaty in 1466, after 13-year war. (1447-1492) John I, son (1492-1501) Alexander I, brother (1501-05)  Sigismund I, brother, patronizes sciences and arts; his and son’s reign are a golden age. Grand Master of Teutonic Order, Albert Hohenzollern, converts to Protestantism; secularizes his state and made first duke of Prussia by Sigismund in 1525. (1506-1548) Sigismund II, son, Union of Lublin, 1569, establishes dual state of Poland and Lithuania. No male heir (1548-1572)
 * House of Valois: Henry of Valois is the first king elected by nobility. Leaves Poland to assume crown of France after brother’s death. (1573-1574) Interregnum. Stephen Bathory, prince of Transylvania, marries Anna, sister of Sigismund II. Fights Russians (1576-1586) Sigismund III Vasa, nephew of Sigismund II and son of king of Sweden. Fights to reclaim Swedish crown, which he’d lost because of his Catholicism; battles Russians and Turks (1587-1632) Władysław IV Vasa, son (1632-1648) John II Casimir Vasa, brother, Fought Cossacks, Swedish, Russians, Turks, Tatars; period of invasions known as “the Deluge” (1648-1668) Michael Korybut Wisniowiecki (1669-1673) John III Sobieski is freed Vienna from besieging Turks in 1683 (1674-1696)
 * Ⓔ Augustus II the Strong, elector of Saxony (1697-1733) and his son Augustus III elector of Saxony (1733-1763) Stanisław, last king. Encouraged reforms; first modern constitution in Europe, 1791. (1764-1795) Poland lost territory to Russia, Austria, and Prussia in three partitions (1772, 1793, 1795). Tadeusz Kościuszko, American-Polish general, attempted unsuccessful insurrection, 1794. Under foreign rule, the Grand duchy of Warsaw is created by Napoleon I out of Prussian (formerly Polish) territory. Frederick Augustus I, king of Saxony, rules the grand duchy (1807-1815). Defeat of Napoleon led to Congress of Vienna, 1814-1815; part of Poland claimed as a kingdom by Russia. Polish uprisings against Russia (1830, 1863) and Austria (1846) are repressed. Poland regains independence following World War I.
 * In the Second Republic, Józef Piłsudski is head of state (1918-1922), President Gabriel Narutowicz (1922) is assassinated by an extremist, President Stanisław Wojciechowski, resigns after a coup d’état by Piłsudski (1922-1926), President Ignacy Mościcki (1926-1939), rules with Piłsudski (who dies in 1935) and Piłsudski’s military colleagues as virtual dictator during what came to be known as Sanacja (meaning cleansing/healing) regime. After Hitler and Stalin sign a nonaggression pact, Germany invades Poland on September 1, 1939. Russia invades on September 17. The Polish government-in-exile moves to France then England. Władysław Raczkiewicz is president (1939-1947). General Władysław Sikorski (1939-1943) and Stanisław Mikołajczyk (1943-1944) serve as prime ministers. Polish residents are sent to German concentration camps and Soviet labor camps. 6 million Poles, half of which are Jews, are killed in the Holocaust. Thousands of Polish prisoners of war, mostly military officers, massacred in Katyn Forest by Soviet secret police, 1940. In compensation for territory ceded to the USSR when WWII ends, Poland receives German territories comrising Silesia, Pomerania, and part of Prussia. Communists dominate the 1947 election. Soviet-sponsored Polish Committee of National Liberation takes a formative role in the new government in 1945, renamed Polish People’s Republic in 1952. The Communist Polish United Workers’ Party rule the country. Large estates are abolished, industries are nationalized, schools secularized, Roman Catholic prelates jailed. Farm production falls off. There is a brief period of liberalization followed Stalin’s death in 1953. Harsh working conditions cause a riot in Poznan on June 28/29, 1956. A new Politburo committed to more independent Polish Communism is named in October 1956, with Władysław Gomulka leading the country as first secretary of the Polish United Workers’ Party. Collectivization of farms is ended and Gomulka agrees to increase religious liberty. After worker riots over price increases and new wage rules, he resigns and Edward Gierek succeeds, dropping the rules and revoking the price increases.The election of Cardinal Józef Wojtyła, archbishop of Krakow, as pope (John Paul II) inspires Poles in 1978. Strikes in 1980 prompt the creation of Solidarity, an independent trade union headed by Lech Wałęsa. It gains control of government in partly free elections in 1985 and helps win political and economic reforms including free elections in an April 5, 1989 accord. Candidates it endorsed swept parliamentary elections. In the Third Republic, Lech Wałęsa is elected president in December 1991. Policies to transform the economy into a free-market system lead to inflation, unemployment, and a return to the left in the 1993 parliamentary elections. Aleksander Kwasniewski (1995-2005) succeeds Wałęsa as president. Ⓕ In Jan. 1994, NATO approves the Partnership for Peace, coordinating defense of eastern and central European countries; Russia later joins. NATO signs a pact with Russia in May 1997 allowing for NATO expansion into former Soviet-bloc countries; the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland join NATO in January 1999. Poland becomes a full member of NATO in March 12, 1999. Efforts toward European unity continue with adoption of a single market in January 1993 and conversion of the European Community to the European Union as the Maastricht Treaty takes effect in November 1993. The euro is launched as common currency in January 1999, initially only for non-cash uses, in 12 EU countries. Poland enters the European Union on May 1, 2004. Lech Kaczynski of the conservative Law and Justice party (PiS) wins the 2005 election. He dies in a plane crash on April 10, 2010. Bronisław Komorowski of the center-right Civic Platform party takes over. Andrzej Duda of PiS wins on May 24 and October 25, 2015 in the presidential runoff and parliamentary elections respectively. July 2017 legislation allowing the justice minister to appoint judges drew European Union criticism as a threat to judicial independence. Legislation effective July 2018 to force the retirement of some Supreme Court judges prompts widespread protests. PiS ins a slim majority in October 13, 2019 parliamentary elections. Duda narrowly wins reelection on July 12, 2020. Following an October 2020 court ruling, and despite massive protests, a ban on almost all abortions goes into effect on January 27, 2021. The European Union begins withholding some grant funding. As of January 1, 2022, the COVID-19 pandemic has caused 4.1 mil cases and 98,000 deaths in Poland.
 * Czechoslovakia breaks into the  Czech Republic (now Czechia) and 🇸🇰  on January 1993.
 * 🇭🇺
 * Kingdom, Kingdom, People's Republic Ⓕ Third Republic
 * 🇱🇹
 * 🇷🇴
 * 🇧🇬
 * 🇲🇩
 * 🇬🇷
 * 🇮🇹
 * 🇦🇩
 * 🇻🇦
 * Holocaust
 * The two  &   reunite after 45 years on October 1990.
 * 🇦🇹
 * Charles III, Maria Theresa, Habsburg-Lorraine, Francis II, Biedermaier, Hungary, First Republic, State, Anschluss, Ⓕ Second Republic
 * breaks apart with hostilities along ethnic and religious lines. 🇷🇸 and 🇲🇪  remain the republic of Yugoslavia, but 🇭🇷, 🇸🇮 , and   declare independence in 1991 and 🇧🇦  in 1992. Serbs especially in Bosnia practice ethnic cleansing of Muslims. Ⓕ The U.S. brokers the Dayton accord, policed by NATO in 1995. They bomb Yugoslavia to stop them from driving ethnic 🇦🇱 ns from  . A June accord brings in NATO peacekeepers.
 * 🇫🇷 Socialist President François Mitterrand declines to run for a third term and conservative Jacques Chirac is elected (May 1995) to the office.
 * 🇲🇨 Monaco
 * 🇨🇭 Switzerland
 * 🇳🇱 Netherlands
 * 🇧🇪 Belgium
 * 🇱🇺 Luxembourg
 * 🇱🇮 Liechtenstein
 * 🇲🇹 Malta
 * 🇸🇲 San Marino
 * 🇪🇸 Spain
 * 🇵🇹 Portugal
 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom 🏴󠁧󠁢󠁥󠁮󠁧󠁿🏴󠁧󠁢󠁳󠁣󠁴󠁿🏴󠁧󠁢󠁷󠁬󠁳󠁿
 * An intraparty revolt forces Margaret Thatcher out as UK prime minister, to be succeeded by John Major in November 1990. Ⓕ Labour takes power under Tony Blair in May 1997. Prince Charles and Diana divorce in August 1996. Diana dies in a car crash a year later. Talks on Northern Ireland lead to a peace plan, approved in an all-Ireland vote in May 1998. In December 1999, Northern Ireland is granted home rule. Voters in Scotland (overwhelmingly) and Wales (narrowly) approve creation of regional legislatures in 1997.
 * 🇮🇪 Ireland
 * The North [NU, NT, YT] Métis, Yup'ik, Inuit, Aleut, Eskimo territory (Arctic, Subarctic, Siberia, Circumpolar)
 * Cities
 * Greenland (Tunumiit oraasiat, Kalaallisut, Avanersuaq), Nunavut (Quikiqtaaluk uannangani, Qikiqtaaluk nigiani, Kivallirmiutut, Aivilimmiutut, Natsilingmiutut, Inuinnaqtun, Siglitun), Alaska (Inupiatun, Qawiaraq), Siberia
 * Alaska: Aleut/Unangan, Dorset, Saqqaq, Eyak, Haida, Tlingit, Tsimshian, Inuit (Thule, Inuvialuit, Iñupiat), Yupik (Alutiiq–Sugpiaq (Chugach), Naukan, Sirenik, Siberian (Chukotka))
 * Athabaskan/Dene: Alaska (Ahtna), NW territory (Sahtu), Yukon (Gwinch'in, Hän, Tutchone, Tanana Athabaskans, Kaska, Tagish, Tahltan)
 * Chipewyan, Dakelh (Deg Hitʼan), Denaʼina (Babine, Wat'suwet'en), Dunneza, Hare/Sahtu, Holikachuk, Koyukon, Sekani, Slavey, Tlicho, Tsilhqot'in, Kuskokwim, Yellowknives)
 * Algonquian: Ontario (Ojibwe), Quebec+Newfoundland & Labrador (Cree)
 * Cascadia [BC] (Tlingit)
 * Praries [AB, SK, MB] (Algic, Siouan-Catawban)
 * Ojibario [ON] Ashinaabeg (Algonquin, Nipissing, Mississaugas, Saulteaux, Odawa, Potawatomi), Attawandaron, Haudenosaunee (Mohawk), Petun (Tionontate), Wyandot
 * Atlantica [NL, NS, NB, QC] Beothuk, Iroquois, Mi'kmaq, Passamaquoddy, Wabanaki, Maliseet/Wolastoquiyik
 * Inuit, Koyukon, Ingalik, Tanana, Han, Kutchin, Hare, Tutchone, Dogrib, Kaska, Tlingit, Tsimshian, Haida, Carrier, Beaver, Chippewa, Kwakiutl, Shus-Wap, Sarcee, Cree, Nootka, Blackfoot, Chinook, Nez Percé, Ojibwa, Montagnais-Naskapi, Yurok, Karok, Modoc, Shoshone, Crow, Mandan, Pomo, Cheyenne, Sioux, Menominee Sauk, Ottawa, Yokut, Paiute, Ute, Arapaho, Pawnee, Potawatomi, Algonkin, Huron, Micmac, Fox, Abenaki, Illini, Susquehannock, Miami, Massachusett, Naragansett, Delaware, Chumash, Navajo, Kiowa, Osage, Shawnee, Flag of the Cherokee Nation.svg Cherokee, Powhatan, Mohave, Hopi, Pueblo, Wichita, Chickasaw, Catawba, Papago, Apache, Comanche, Caddo, Choctaw, Creek, Natchez, Cochimi, Pima, Tarahumara, Tepehuan, Coahuiltec, Timucua, Calusa, Cora, Huichol, Huaxtec, Otomi, Island Arawak, Ciboney, Tarasco, Totonac, Nahuas, Mixtec, Zapotec, Maya, Lenca, Paya, Mosquito, Nicarao, Guaymí, Cuna
 * Northeast [MA, CT, NH, ME, RI, VT, NY, PA, NJ, MD, DE, DC] (Siouan-Catawban) Abenaki, Erie, Etchemin, Honniasont, Housatonic, Haudenosaunee (Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onodaga, Seneca/Mingo, Tuscarora), Laurentian, Lenni Lenape/Delaware (Canarsie, Esopus, Hackensack, Rumachenanck, Kitchawank, Minisink*, Navasink*, Sinsink* Raritan, Siwanoy, Tappan, Waoranecks, Wappinger, Warranawankongs, Wiechquaeskeck, Acquackanock, Okehocking, Unalachtigo), Mohican, Manahoac, Ponkapoag, Montaukett, Narragansett, Niantic, Nipmuc, Potatuck, Penobscot, Pequot, Pocumtuc, Podunk, Quinnipiac, Schaghticoke, Shinnecock, Susquehannock, Tunxis, Tuscarora, Wampanoag (Nauset, Patuxet, Pokanoket), Wangunk, Wenro, Wyachtonok*
 * By 1400-1600 tribes coalesce. The Erie confederacy or Nation du Chat or Long Tail people southeast of Lake Erie are part of the Iroquois with similar language and culture. They cultivate the Three Sisters, corn, bean, and squash in the summer and animals in the winter. Rivalries and competition for power and fire arms escalates with settling French and Dutch colonists in 1611. The Beaver Wars begin. In 1651 the Iroquois League destroys Huron villages and they are upset the Erie accept their refugees. The Erie have few firewarms, but they use poison-tipped arrows. In 1653 they launch a preemptive attack on the western Iroquois tribes. In the next year, the Iroquois wars against the Erie, the Neutral people, and the Tobacco people. By 1658 they are decimated in five years of war with the Iroquois for this. They are absorbed by families of the westernmost Iroquois, the Seneca.
 * Susquehannock
 * Wyandot/Huron, and St. Lawrence people speak Iroquoian. The Iroquois emerge from the Algonquin people in Montreal. Since 1450, the :ïrëkwoi: or :houdënoušouni: people of the longhouse are the Five Nations that comprise of the Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, and Seneca. It is said to be formed by the efforts of the Great Peacemaker :Dekanawida:, :Hiawatha:, and the Mother of Nations :Jigonsaseh: who brought the first's Great Law of Peace to the nations fighting with each other. In 1609 are the Beaver Wars against the Algonquian Lenape/Delaware peoples and Anishinaabe. There are the French and Indian Wars. After 1722 they accept the Tuscarora to be known as the Six Nations. According to legend, an evil Onondaga cheiftain Tadodaho
 * Dixie [FL, MS, GA, AL, TN, KY, NC, SC, VA, WV] (Muskogean, Yuchi, Timucua, Calusa) Assateague, Chowanoke, Choptank, Conoy, Honniasont, Tuscarora, Meherrin, Monacan, Moneton, Nansemond, Nanticoke (Accohannock), Nottaway, Occaneechi, Pamplico, Patuxent, Piscataway, Powhatan (Appomattoc, Arrohateck, Chesapeake, Chesepian, Chickahominy, Kiskiack, Mattaponi, Nansemond, Pamunkey, Paspahegh), Rappahannock, Secotan (Croatoan, Dasamongueponke, Roanoke), Shawnee, Stegarake, Stuckanox*, Doeg/Tauxenent, Tutelo, Poospatuck (Unquachog), Wicocomico, Acolapissa, Biloxi, Cape Fear Indians, Catawba, Chakchiuma, Chawasha*, Cheraw, Cherokee, Chickanee*, Chickasaw, Chicora, Chisce, Chitimacha, Choctaw, Chowanoke, Coharie, Congaree, Coree, Coharie, Croatan, Cusabo, Eno, Etiwan, Griga*, Guale, Houma, Jaupin/Weapemoc*, Coushatta, Koroa, Lumbee, Machapunga, Mabila, Mougoulacha, Muscogee/Creek (Abihka, Alabama, Pakana, Apalachicola, Chiahua, Eufaula, Hitchiti/Oconee, Kialegee, Osochee*, Talapoosa*, Thlopthlocco, Tukabatchee), Natchez, Neusiok, Mosopelea/Ofo, Okchai, Okelousa, Opelousas, Pamlico, Pascagoula, Pee Dee, Potoskeet*, Quinipissa, Roanoke, Saluda*, Santee, Saponi, Saura, Saxapahaw, Secotan, Sewee, Shakori, Shoccoree/Haw*, Sissipahaw, Sugeree*, Suteree*, Taensa, Tawasa, Tiou*, Tomahitan*, Tunica, Waccamaw, Waccamaw Siouan, Wateree, Waxhaw, Westo, Winyaw, Woccon, Yazoo
 * Florida: Ancient Norwood Ais, Alafay, Amacano*, Apalachee, Calusa, Chacato, Chatot, Chine*, Guacata*, Guacozo*,  Jaega, Luca*, Matecumbe, Mayaca, Mayaimi, Mayajuaca*, Mikasuki, Mocoso, Naniaba*, Pacara, Penascola, Santa Luces*, Sawokli*, Seminole, Surruque, Tesquesta, Timucua (Acuera, Agua Fresca, Arapaha, Cascangue, Icafui, Mocama, N. Utina, Utina, Ocale, Oconi*, Potano, Saturiwa, Tacatacuru, Tucururu*, Yufera, Yui, Yustaga), Tocaste*, Tocobaga, Tohomé*, Topachula*, Utiza*, Uzita, Vicela*, Viscaynos, Yamasee
 * Midwest [IL, OH, MI, IN, WI, MO, MN, IA, KS, NE, SD, ND] (Algic, Souan-Catawban) Ojibwe, Potawatomi, Ho-Cyunk (Winnebago), Honnisont, Adena, Hopewell, Illiniwek (Cahokia, Kaskaskia, Miami), Kickapoo, Mascouten, Menominee, Meskwaki, Mitchigamea (Moingona, Peoria, Tamaroa, Wea), Sauk, Atakapa (Eastern, Akokisa, Bidai, Deadose, Orcoquiza, Patiri, Tlacopsel), Avoyel, Bayogoula, Caddo (Adai, Cahinnio, Doustioni, Eyeish, Hainai, Hasinai, Kadohadacho, Nabedache, Nabiti, Nacogdoche, Nacono, Nadaco, Nanatsoho, Nasoni, Natchitoches, Neche, Nechaui, Ouachita, Tula, Yatasi)
 * Frontier [TX, LA, AR, OK, AZ, CO, UT, NV, NM, ID, MT, WY] (Siouan-Catawban, Uto-Aztecan, Na-Dene, Yuman-Cochimí, Zuni, Keresan, Kiowa-Tanoan, Caddoan, Tunica, Natchez, Chitimacha, Adai, Atakapa, Karankawa, Tonkawa, Aranama, Cotoname, Coahuilteco, Solano) Kickapoo, Cherokee
 * In the Eastern Woodlands
 * In the Northwest Plateau
 * In the Great Basin of Wyoming, Idaho, Oregon, California, Utah, but mostly Nevada there are the oldest North American petroglyphs dated 10,500 to 14,800 years ago near Winnemucca Lake. The Bannock and Eastern Shoshone share traits with the plains Indians. Desert Archaic culture is nomadic to take advantage of seasonally available food supplies. Intricate baskets are woven for water, cooking food, winnowing grass seeds and storage of pine nuts, a Paiute-Shoshone staple. Heavy items such as metates would be cached rather than carried from foraging area to foraging area. ⒷⒸ After classical Fremont culture (400 CE–1300 CE), Ⓓ Numic speakers of Western Shoshone and Northern and Southern Paiute come in. Ⓔ Domínguez–Escalante expedition occurs in 1776. The Northern Paihute prophets Wodziwob and Wovoka, introduce the Ghost Dance in a ceremony to commune with departed loved ones and bring renewal of buffalo herds and precontact lifeways. The Ute Bear Dance, the Sun Dance and Peyote religion develop in the Great Basin. Goshute Reservation is created in 1863, Ely Shoshone Reservation in 1930, and Duckwater Indian Reservation in 1940. FDR's Indian New Deal improves the economy. Kawaiisu, Timbisha, Washo (Palagewan, Pahkanapil), Southern Paiute (Chemehuevi, Kaibab, Kaiparowits, Moapa, Panaca*, Panguitch*, Paranigets, Shivwits), Northern Paiute, Bannock, Mono, Eastern Shoshone (Guchundeka', Kuccuntikka, Buffalo Eaters, Tukkutikka, Tukudeka, Mountain Sheep Eaters, Boho'inee', Pohoini, Pohogwe, Sage Grass people, Sagebrush Butte People), Northern Shoshone (Agaideka, Salmon Eaters, Lemhi, Mountain People, Kammedeka, Kammitikka, Jack Rabbit Eaters, Hukundüka, Porcupine Grass Seed Eaters, Wild Wheat Eaters, Dukundeka', Sheep Eaters, Yahandeka, Yakandika, Groundhog Eaters), Western Shoshone (Kusiutta, Goshute/Gosiute (Cedar Valley, Deep Creek, Rush Valley, Skull Valley, Wipayutta, Weber Ute, Toole Valley, Trout Creek), Kuyatikka, Kuyudikka, Bitterroot Eaters, Mahaguadüka, Mentzelia Seed Eaters, Ruby Valley, Painkwitikka, Penkwitikka, Fish Eaters, Pasiatikka, Redtop Grass Eaters, Deep Creek Gosiute, Tipatikka, Pinenut Eaters, Tsaiduka, Tule Eaters, Railroad Valley, Tsogwiyuyugi, Waitikka, Ricegrass Eaters, Watatikka, Ryegrass Seed Eaters, Wiyimpihtikka, Buffalo Berry Eaters), Northern Ute (San Pitch, Seuvarits*, Timpanogos, Uncompahgre (Tabeguache), Uintah, White River (Parianuche, Yampa)), Southern Ute (Capote, Muache), Ute Mountain (Weeminuche), Paiute (Moanunts, Pahvant)
 * Ak Chin, Navajo, Apache (Chiricahua, Jicarilla, Lipan, Mescalero, San Carlos, Tonto, Coyotero, White Mountain), Aranama, Coahuiltecan, Cocopa, Comecrudo, Cotoname, Genízaro, Halchidhoma, Hualapai, Havasupai, Hohokam, Karankawa, Kavelchadhom*, La Junta, Mamulique, Manso, Maricopa, Mojave, Pima, Pima Bajo, Quechan (Yuma), Quems, Solano, Tamique, Toboso, Tohono O'odham (Qahatika), Tompiro, Ubate*, Walapai, Yaqui (Yoreme), Yavapai (Tolkapaya, Yavapé, Kwevkapaya, Wipukpa)
 * Anasazi (750-): Ancestral Pueblo, Hopi-Tewa (Arizona Tewa, Hano), Hopi, Keres (Acoma, Cochiti, Kewa (Santo Domingo), Laguna Pueblo, San Felipe, Santa Ana, Zia), Tewa (Nambé, Ohkay Owingeh (San Juan), Pojoaque, San Ildefonso, Tesuque, Santa Clara), Tiwa (Isleta, Picuris, Sandia, Taos, Ysleta del Sur (Tigua), Piro), Towa (Jemez (Walatowa), Pecos/Ciquique), Zuni (Ashiwi)
 * Mogollon (moʊɡəˈjoʊn) people (200-1500):
 * Hokoham tradition (200-):
 * Mexico: Nahuas, Yucatec (Maya’wiinik), Zapotec (Binizaa), Mixtec (Tu'un savi), Otomi (Hñähñü), Totonac (Tachiwin), Tzotzil (Batzil k'op), Tzeltal (K'op o winik atel), Mazahua (Hñatho), Mazatec (Ha shuta enima), Huastec (Téenek), Ch'ol (Winik), Chinantec (Tsa jujmí), Purépecha (P'urhépecha), Mixe (Ayüükjä'äy), Tlapanec (Me'phaa), Tarahumara (Rarámuri), Tepehua (Hamasipini), Kanjobal (K'anjobal), Chontal of Oaxaca (Slijuala sihanuk), Pame (Xigüe), Chichimeca Jonaz (Uza), Huarijio (Makurawe), Chuj, Chocho (Runixa ngiigua), Tacuate, Mexicanero (Mexikatlajtolli), Ocuiltec (Tlahuica), Jacaltec (Abxubal), Kekchí (K'ekchí), Lacandon (Hach t'an), Ixcatec, Seri (Comcáac), K'iche' (Quiché, Q'iché), Motocintleco* (Qatok), Kaqchikel (K'akchikel), Paipai (Akwa'ala), Tohono O'odham (Papago), Cocopah (Es péi), Kumiai (Ti'pai), Kikapú (Kikapooa), Cochimi (Laymón, mti'pá), Ixil, Kiliwa (Ko'lew), Aguacatec
 * California [CA, OR, WA] (Plateau Penutian, Cayuse, Chimakuan, Chinookan, Kalapuyan, Alsean, Siuslaw, Coosan, Takelma, Shastan, Karuk, Chimariko, Palaihnihan, Yana, Wintuan, Yuki-Wappo, Pomoan, Maiduan, Washo, Utian, Yokutsan, Esselen, Salinan, Chumashan, Yuman-Cochimí)
 * Northeast Ⓔ Thirteen colonies. French and Indian War. American Revolution. Declaration of Independence. Treaty of Paris. Articles of Confederation. On 2374599 :jorjwašiňtën: is inaugurated president and serves two terms. On 2377464 :jonädëms: presides. On 2378924 :tomasjéfirsën: presides for two terms. Lousisiana Purchase. War of 1812. On 2381846 :jeimzmádisën: presides for two terms. On 2384768 :jeimzmunró: presides for two terms. On 2387690 :jonkwinciädëms: presides as the son of :jonädëms:. On 2389151 :ändruwjäksën: presides for two terms. On 2392073 :martinvänbyören: presides. On 2393534 :wiliëmhenrihärisën: presides for a month. On 2393567 :jontailër: takes over. On 2394995 :jeimznokspolk: presides. On 2396457 :zäkariteylor: presides. After he is assassinated, on 2396949 :milërdfilmor: takes over. On 2397917 :fränklinpyírs: presides. On 2399378 :jeimzbyukänan: presides. On 2400839 :eibrähamlinkën: presides. After he is assassinated in his second term, on 2402342 :ändrujonsën: takes over. On 2403761 :yulisissimpsongrant: presides for two terms. On 2406683 :rëḑërfërdbirčërdhéyz: presides. On 2408144 :jeimzgárfiëld: presides. On 2408344 :čestëralanarţër: takes over. On 2409605 :grovërklivländ: presides. On 2411066 :benjaminhárïsën: presides. On 2412527 :klivländ: is presides again. On 2413988 :wiliëmmëkinli: presides. He is reelected but dies shortly after. On 2415642 :ţiodorróuzëvelt: takes over and presides for two terms. On 2418370 :wiliëmhawërttáft: presides. On 2419831 :wudrowilsën: presides for two terms. On 2422753 :worenhardiňg: presides. On 2423635 :kälvinkulij: presides for two terms. On 2425675 :hërbërthuvër: presides. On 2427136 :fränklïndelanoróuzëvelt: presides for four terms. On 2431558 :häritruman: presides for two terms. On 2434387 :dwaitteivïdáizënhawër: presides for two terms. On 2437309 :jonfitsjerëldkénedi: presides. After he is assassinated, on 2438356 :lindënbeinzjonsën: takes over to preside for two terms. On 2440242 :ričërdniksën: presides for two terms. On 2442269 :jerëldfórd: takes over. On 2443164 :jimikarter: presides. On 2444625 :ronaldreigän: presides for two terms. On 2447547 :jorjherbertwókërbuš: presides. On 2449008 :bilklintën: presides. Ⓕ In 1995 the federal budget has a $160 billion debt which in 2000 becomes a $236 billion surplus which is currently a $30 trillion debt. The cost of the presidential election increased from $x billion in 1996 to $x billion in 2020, and for the congressional races from $x billion to $x billion. On 2450469 :klintën: is reinaugurated. On 2451930 sal :jorjwókërbuš: presides as the son of :jorjherbertwókërbuš:. On 2453391 :buš: is reinaugurated. On 2454852 :bërakobama: presides as the first brown-colored person. He enacts the affordable care act. On 2456313 :obama: is reinaugurated. On July 17, 2014, a brown man :erïggarnër: is choked by a policeman in :nuyórk:. He shouted "I can't breath" eleven times. By the end of his presidency, :obama: called for 542 drone strikes on the Taliban and al-Qaeda, killing 3797 people including 324 civilians. For the upcoming election, the media and politicians vilify :bërnisändërs: and rave :hiariklintën: as spouse of :bilklintën:, however. On 2457774 :danëldjančrêmp: presides as the first clown with a distinct wig and orange face paint. He repeats "lock her up" after having sexually assaulted 25 women. He double-lies 10k times and 1/3 of people extol him too intransigently. One promise is for a border wall between Mexico that they will have to pay for. He rescinds the Iran nuclear deal and Paris climate accord. Prior to the election of 2020, he defunds the post office. He repeats that his election is stolen when the irony is his attempt to steal the election. On 2459221 rioters overrun states' and the country's capitols. On 2459235 :jorobinetbaiden: presides as the former vice president of :obama:, who joined media and politicians to disavow :bërnisändërs: again during the election. The vice president is :kamalahäris:.
 * Dixie Ⓔ On April 12, 2015, a brown man :fredigréy: was injured under negligence being transported by six policemen in Baltimore. He dies a week later. On March 13, 2020 a brown woman :brionateylër: is shot by three ununiformed policemen.
 * Midwest Ⓔ On November 22, 2014, a brown boy :tëmirráis: is killed by a policeman in Cleveland. On May 25, 2020 a brown man :jorjflóyd: is choked for 8 minutes 46 seconds by a policeman with his knee in Minneapolis. This sparks protests in a movement called Black Lives Matter calling to "defund the police".
 * Frontier Ⓔ battle of blair mountain, project MKUltra, Panama papers, decreasing the national debt. tax cuts. gay rights. SOPA/PIPA. Newt Gingrich, Rush Limbaugh, Dick Cheney, Mitch McConnell, Koch brothers, Edward Snowden, Chelsea Manning, George Soros, Ghislaine Maxwell, Julian Assange.
 * Caribbean, Greater & Lesser Anilles
 * 🇧🇸 Bahamas
 * 🇧🇧 Barbados
 * 🇧🇿 Belize
 * 🇨🇷 Costa Rica
 * 🇨🇺 Cuba
 * 🇩🇲 Dominica
 * 🇩🇴 Dominican Republic
 * 🇸🇻 El Salvador
 * 🇬🇩 Grenada
 * 🇬🇹 Guatemala
 * 🇭🇹 Haiti
 * 🇭🇳 Honduras
 * 🇯🇲 Jamaica
 * 🇳🇮 Nicaragua
 * 🇵🇦 Panama
 * 🇵🇷 Puerto Rico is neglected during Trump administration
 * 🇦🇬 Antigua and Barbuda, 🇬🇺 Guam, 🇰🇳 Saint Kitts and Nevis, 🇱🇨 Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, 🇹🇹 Trinidad and Tobago, various isles
 * Ardioamerica, Oasisamerica, Mesoamerica (Comecrudan)
 * 🇲🇽 Mexico Flag of Cross of Burgundy.svg, Chichimeca, Maya, Aztec
 * Territories
 * 🇧🇷 Brazil History. Republic, Amazon rubber boom, Federalist Riograndense Revolution, Revolta da Armada, War of Canudos, Vaccine Revolt, Annexation of Acre, Contestado War, WWI, Revolt of the Lash, Tenente revolts, 18 of the Copacabana Fort revolt, Coluna Prestes, Revolution of 1930, Constitutionalist Revolution, Integralism, Estado Novo, WWII, coup d'état, AI-5, Araguaia Guerrilla War, March of the One Hundred Thousand, Lost Decade, Constituent Assembly, Plano Collor, Impeachment, Constitutional referendum, Plano Real, firearms and ammunition referendum, Mensalão, Petrolão, Car Wash, Impeachment, Bolsonaro, Covid
 * Brâzíw is named after the Portuguese word for ember-red, brazilwood, sold to traders and harvested by Tupi peoples in the 16th century. ⒶⒷ Minais Gerais is inhabited by Jiquabu tribes 11000 years ago. Marajoara culture appears on Marajó island around 1000BC until 1600AD. They develop sophisticated pottery and they flourish between 800-1400AD. Ⓒ The Xingu people inhabit settlements often with moats and connected by roads and bridges. They flourish between 1200-1600. There are Tupi natives and Tapuia natives. The Tupinambá, Potiguara, Tabajara, Caeté, Tupiniquim, Temiminó, Tamoio, Carijó, and the Tremembé, Aimoré, Goitacá, Charrúa inhabit the coast.
 * The Tordesillas Line of 1494. On 226,9045 Pedro Álvares Cabral claims sovereignty under Portugal's sponsorship.
 * After the Paraguayan War, abolition of slavery, a severe drought leading to economic collapse, and being without any male heirs, on 241,1322 the end of Pedro II's reign is proclaimed a republic in :uhiujižëneiru: non-violently by Deodoro da Fonseca. The constitution is adopted 466 days later, but the elections are rigged under Coronel-ismo to centralize power under agrarian oligarchs making coffee in São Paulo state especially and dairy in Minas Gerais. Other states resent this coffee-with-milk politics wherein the president alternates from the two states. On - Field Marshal :florianu vie(j)ra pe(j)šótu: is appointed Minister to keep military allegiance. Emancipated slaves moved from the northeast to the southeast, weakening the sugar oligarchies in the north. :prudeči žoze ji moráiz i bařus:.
 * Ernesto Geisel. Dictatorship
 * Jânio Quadros is a member of the National Labour Party backed by the National Democratic Union. He wins the presidency and serves from 243,7331 until resigning 206 days later. Tancredo Neves negotiates parliamentary rule with himself as prime minister and João Goulart of the Brazilian Labour Party as head of State. He (Goulart) takes office as president owing to the constitutional referendum on 243,8036. Throughout his administration, known as Jango, his Basic Reforms proposes rent control, a wealth tax, expropriation of land by roads railroads and dams, and nationalization of oil refineries and foreign-owned mining operations. The US propagandizes communist threats of an imminent Red Specter to subversively remove Goulart, resulting in the Marches of the Family with God for Liberty demonstration expressing opposition to his reformist agenda and demanding impeachment. The armed forces (army, navy and air force) overthrow Goulart's administration on 243,8487, resulting in a military dictatorship supported by the Catholic church and US. It adopts nationalism and anticommunism and creates a restrictive Constitution towards political opposition and free speech. The dictatorship arrests, exiles, tortures, and kills thousands until 244,6140 when Neves is indirectly elected president.
 * Brazilian Miracle
 * João Figueiredo becomes the president on 244,3948 and dissolves the government-controlled ARENA. In Diretas Já, citizens assemble to demand changing to direct presidential election. PMDB legislation does not pass the pro-government PDS. Some defect from PDS to form the PFL. Tancredo Neves builds an alliance between the them and the PMDB. He is elected by parliament, but dies, so on 244,6177 his vice president, José Sarney, a long-time military regime supporter, presides. On 24474XX (October 1988), the new Constituent Assembly makes a new constitution, presided by resistance leader Ulysses Guimarães. It decentralizes government, empowering local and state government, restores freedom of speech, and gives the rights to independent public prosecutors, economic freedom, direct and free elections, and universal healthcare. Price controls, price freezes, and switching currencies are attempts at controlling stagflation with the Plano Cruzado and Plano Verão. Brazil defaults on its national debt, closing international markets. By direct vote, president Collor transitions to a civilian state and institutes the cruzeiro as national currency to fight inflation. He removes import barriers. He is impeached, so vice-president Franco takes position. Ⓕ On 244,9719 Cardoso begins presiding. He proposes constitution changes enabling other countries to invest in the Brazilian economy. He proposes social security and reforms to lower public spending. His leadership stabilizes the Brazilian economy after years of hyperinflation. Many state-owned companies are privatized. Agencies form to regulate energy, oil, and aviation industries. Brazil participates in the Uruguay Round and International Force for East Timor. On 245,2641 Lula begins presiding, maintaining low inflation. Rousseff. Temer. Bolsonaro.
 * 🇻🇪 Venezuela is named during an expedition led by Alonso de Ojeda after the Italian "little Venice" or indigenous "Veneciuela". Ⓕ History Nicolás Maduro and Juan Guaidó
 * 🇨🇴 Colombia is named after the Italian navigator "Cristoforo Colombo" Ⓕ Ernesto Samper
 * 🇬🇾 Guyana is named after an Amerindian word for "land of many waters", 🇸🇷 Suriname is named after the "Surinen" people, 🇪🇨 Ecuador is named after the equator in Spanish owing to the capital Quito being 40km south of it. The Galapagos archipelago is named after the Spanish "tortoises". They are home to many unique species studied by Charles Darwin, leading to his theory of evolution via natural selection.
 * 🇵🇪 Peru / Banner of the Qulla Suyu.svg Inca
 * Chocó, Guajiro, Chibcha, Warau, Guahibo, Arawak, Carib Indians, Yanomamö, Paez, Tucano, Trio, Macú, Waiwai, Witoto, Yagua, Jivaro, Omagua, Teremembé, Tumbes Chimú, Tenetehara, Cawahib, Mundurucú, Timbira, Muchic, Shipibo, Cayapó, Shavante, Piro, Campa, Nambicuara, Carajá, Tupinambá, Quechua, Nazca, Mojo, Bororo, Aymará, Sirionó, Guato, Atacama, Mataco, Caiguá, Botocudo, Diaguita, Guaraní, Kaingang, Abipón, Charrúa, Araucanas, Puelche, Alacaluf, Tehuelche, Yahgan, Ona
 * 🇦🇷 Argentina is named by Venetians or Genoese from the Italian word "made of/colored silver"
 * Indigenous peoples in the North: The Abipón inhabit Gran Chaco as hunter-gatherer fishers, and to small extent farmers. During floods they live on islands or shelters built in trees. They are tall with black eyes and black hair plucked out from the forehead to the crown. Their lips and ears are pierced. Women have faces, breasts, and arms tattooed with figures according to age and social status. Men fight with the bow and arrow, spear and club, and bolas wearing in battle tapir hide sewn under jaguar skin. They are good swimmers and horsemen. They commonly practice infanticide and share customs of the Guaycurú, like the couvade. By 1641 they obtain horses from the Spanish settlers to hunt cattle, rhea, guanaco, deer, and peccary and do horse raiding in place of farming of Spanish ranches and the cities Asuncion and Corrientes. Beginning 1710 the Spanish begin imposing military authority on them. By 1750 Jesuit missionaries Christianize them. They are often raided by the hostile Guaycurú Toba/Qom and Mocoví peoples. By 1768 half of them succumb to disease and the Spanish expel the Jesuits, so the Toba/Qom and Mocoví destroy their nation.
 * The Bandera del pueblo Mocoví.svg Mocoví inhabit Gran Chaco as nomadic hunter-gatherer fishers. They hunt deer and rhea and trade skins and feathers for gold, silver, and copper items. Jesuits teach them to farm with cattle, so they settle.
 * The Bandera del pueblo Qom (tricolor).svg Bandera del pueblo Qom.svg Toba or Qom people inhabit Salta and Tarija. They are semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers. They live in log shelters convered in straw, craft ceramic, weave baskets, and knit clothes. Their religion is animistic and shamanistic. They frequently practice infanticide. The Wichí displace them east. The Qom are enemies of the Abipón and allies of the Mocoví. Like other Guaycurú peoples, the Qom organize themselves into 60-family bands. They hunt animals like imported cattle with bows and arrows. At the beginning of the 1700s, missionaries make contact, allowing the Qom to make use of horses in a powerful complex called Chaco Gualamba. They ride horses through trees wearing leather helmets. Guaycurú groups like the Qom cross the Paraguay river to raid Paraguay. The Qom becomes the dominant group in Central Chaco, advancing west to make raids in Pampas. In 1756 at Jujuy the Jesuits founded a "reduction" center. When they are expelled in 1768 there are 600 Qom inhabiting it and they are one of the most resistant Chaco region groups against the merging of white culture and the claims to power. They frequently use and update rifles to defend themselves and their territory, under chiefs such as Tayolique. In 1858 they threaten Santa Fe city. After 1880 the Argentine Army confines them to a dense forest difficult to navigate and survive owing to the lack of water. In 1884 the conquest of Gran Chaco is led by General Victoria. In 1901 the government and Franciscan missionaries found two "reductions" in Formosa: one has 150 Qom and Pilagá from northern Chaco on 20000 hectares and another has Qom on 74000 hectares with a sugar refinery operating for 45 years. Many are forced to work on cotton plantations or manufacturing plants. Between 1911-16 General Victoria ends a Qom revolt, marginalizing them and making survival more difficult. In 1924 the Qom resist being concentrated onto reservations for foreigners and Creoles to have more estancia farming areas, and 200 die at the Massacre of Napalpí with 700 injured. The remaining who aren't shot have their throats slit. Formosa becomes a province in 1955, so the missions are given civil control. Sovereignty is maintained until the late 19th century when territorial conquest and subjugation of people lowers the population. The Qom stop working agrarian labor and are largely expelled. Today they live in poverty. ...
 * The Bandera del pueblo Wichi.svg Wichí [wiˈci] inhabit the Gran Chaco, Chaco, Formosa, and Salta provinces. They are semi-nomadic hunters, fishers, and agriculturalists. Their houses are light structures scattered in the jungle. Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries come in 1690 and 1771. ...
 * The Chané inhabit Gran Chaco.
 * Charrúa, Lule, Mbya, Tonocoté, Vilela, Atacama, Avá-Guaraní, Chorote, Chulupí, Diaguita-Calchaquí, including the Chicoana, Kolla, Ocloya, Omaguaca, Tapiete, Quechua.
 * In Central Argentina: Atacama, Avá Guaraní, Comechingon, Diaguita-Calchaquí, Huarpe, Kolla, Mapuche, Het, Rankulche
 * In Southern Argentina: Alacaluf, Haush people, Mapuche, Selknam, Puelche, Aonikenk, Yaghan
 * 🇺🇾 Uruguay is named after the "river of the bird" or "river-snail" from the Guaraní people's language.
 * 🇧🇴 Bolivia is named after Simón Bolívar, who fights in the Spanish American wars of independence.
 * 🇵🇾 Paraguay comes from the word "feather crown of waters" from the Guaraní people's language. Tribes include the Aché, Ayoreo, Chané, Chamacoco (Ishir) [including the Ebytoso and Tomáraho], Chiripá, Chorote, Guana, Guaraní, Enxet, Nivaclé, Macá, Pai-Tavyter, Sanapaná Mbayá: The Kadiweu in Brazil's Mato Grosso do Sul are a Guaycurú people. They are raiders, but smallpox and influenza decimated their population by the end of the 18th century. They fight in the Paraguayan war on the side of Brazil.
 * Aché
 * Ayoreo
 * Chamacoco
 * The Enxet or Lengua people inhabit Gran Chaco as hunter-gatherers, but most now inhabit settlements sponsored by missionaries and must labor on cattle ranches. The Sanapaná or Nenhlet inhabit Gran Chaco as nomads and are settled by Mennonites.
 * Guaraní
 * Guaycuru
 * Mbayá
 * Pai Tavytera
 * Payaguá
 * Aingate, Chiripá, Chorote/Choritu
 * Languages:
 * Guaicuruan: Toba Qom, Abipón, Guachí, Kadiweu, Mocoví, Payaguá, Pilagá
 * Charruan: Charrúa, Chaná, Güenoa
 * Mascoian: Angaité, Enlhet, Enxet, Kaskihá, Sanapaná, Toba-Maskoy, Maskoy
 * Matacoan: Chorote (Iyoʼwujwa Chorote, Iyojwaʼja Chorote), Maka, Nivaclé,
 * Mascoian: Angaité, Enlhet, Enxet, Kaskihá, Sanapaná, Toba-Maskoy, Maskoy
 * Matacoan: Chorote (Iyoʼwujwa Chorote, Iyojwaʼja Chorote), Maka, Nivaclé,
 * Tupi–Guarani: Aché, Ava Guarani, Pai Tavytera
 * Zamucoan: Ayoreo, Chamacoco
 * 🇨🇱 Chile maybe comes from the Incan name for the Picunche ruler, chief "Tili", of the Aconagua valley, or for a valley similar to it in Peru's Casma Valley, namely "Chili". Or it maybe comes from Quechua "cold" or "snow" or "deepest point of the Earth" or from Mapuche "where the land ends" or the imitation of the sound of a local trile.

Prehistory
Stone Age

Bronze Age

Iron Age

Migration

Norte Chico

Indus Valley

Ancient Egypt

Ancient history 2000BC-760AD ⒶⒷ
Mesopotamia

Sumer

Mayan Civilization

Ancient Greece

Han Dynasty

Roman Empire

Gupta Empire

Post-classical history 760-1720 ⒸⒹ
Byzantine Empire 395–1453

Middle Ages 400-1400

Tang Dynasty 618–907

Abbasid Caliphate 750–1258

Viking Age 793–1066

Holy Roman Empire 800–1806

Crusades 1095–1492

Mongol Empire 1206–1368

Mali Empire 1230–1670

Ottoman Empire 1299–1922

Aztec 1300–1521

Renaissance 1300–1600

Ming Dynasty 1368–1644

Inca 1438–1533

Protestant Reformation 1517–1648

Age of Enlightenment 1620–1815

Modern history 1720-2022 ⒺⒻ
British Empire 1497–1997

Protestant Reformation

French Revolution

Cold War

Great Depression

Industrial Revolution

World War I

World War II

American Civil War

Cultural Revolution

Meiji Restoration

Qing Dynasty

Vietnam War

Arab–Israeli conflict

The Holocaust

Treaty of Versailles

Russian Revolution

Nazi Germany

Apartheid

General Art

 * The Arts
 * Art
 * Calligraphy
 * Comics
 * Fashion
 * Painting
 * Pottery
 * Sculpture

Visual Art History
Prehistoric

Ancient East Egypt Aegea Greek

Africa: Nok, Zimbabwe, Ife, Aksum, Benin, Mende, Kongo

Etruscan Roman Late Antique

Byzantine

Islamic

Early Medieval Romanesque Gothic, Hiberno-Saxon, Viking, Carolingian, Ottonian, Romanesque, Early Gothic, Rayonnant, Flamboyant, Perpendicular

Renaissance Mannerism

Pacific Art: Asmat, Aboriginal, Maori, Easter Island

India and Southeast Asia: Lion, wheel, lotus, columns, throne, torana, mudra, ushnisha, predella, yaksha and yakshi, Lion Capital from Sarnath, Great Stupa, Chaitya Hall, Buddha Preaching the First Sermon, Bodhisattva Padmapani, Borobudur, Death of the Buddha, Nirvana

Hinduism and Islam: Shiva, mithuna, darshan, puja, Vishvanatha Temple. Shiva Nataraja with a Nimbus, Angkor Wat, Outer Gopura of the Great Temple of Madurai, Taj Mahal, urna

China: stupa, pagoda, Forbidden City, Temple of Heaven, handscroll, hanging scroll, colophon, yin yang, porcelain, literati, Bare Willows and Distant Mountains, Dwelling in the Qingbian Mountains, Man in a House Beneath a Cliff, Army of Emperor Shi Huangdi, Seated Buddha at Shanxi, Bi with Dragons

Japan: Tea ceremony, Zen, Ise Shrine, Phoenix Hall, Himeiji Castle, haboku, genre, ukiyo-e, Burning of the Sanjo Palace, Sesshū Tōyō Winter and Summer, The Great Wave, haniwa, Noh mask, Shaka Triad, Donjon

Americas: Olmec, Nazca, Moche, Teotihuacán, Maya, Anasazi, Mississippi, Aztec, Inca, US Northwest Coast

19-21st century Art: Realism, Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, Symbolism, Art Nouveau, Prairie Style, Fauvism, Expressionism (The Bridge, The Blue Rider), Cubism, Futurism, Metaphysical Painting, Suprematism, Constructivism, Dada, Destijl, Bauhaus, Precisionism, Mexican Mural, International Style, Surrealism, Art Deco, Organic, Depression Era, Abstract Expressionism, Pop, Color Field Painting, Conceptual, Performance, Op, Minimalism, Site, Feminist, Postmodern, Digital / Games

Music

 * History, Instrument, Rhythm, Melody, Note scale and written score, Harmony


 * Music
 * Song
 * Classical music
 * Opera
 * Symphony
 * Blues
 * Electronic music
 * Hop hop music
 * Jazz
 * Reggae
 * Rock music
 * Drum
 * Flute
 * Guitar
 * Piano
 * Trumpet
 * Violin

Performance

 * History
 * Dance
 * Flamenco
 * Samba
 * Theatre
 * Drama and Comedy
 * Opera
 * Film
 * Animation (Anime)

Literature

 * Literature
 * Fiction
 * Prose
 * Novel
 * Book
 * Encyclopedia
 * Poetry
 * The Art of War
 * One Thousand and One Nights
 * Dream of the Red Chamber
 * The Tale of Genji
 * Epic of Gilgamesh
 * Iliad
 * Mahabharata
 * Shahnameh

Architecture

 * Architecture
 * Giza Necropolis
 * Angkor Wat
 * Great Wall of China
 * Taj Mahal
 * Colloseum
 * Eiffel Tower
 * Hagia Sofia
 * Parthenon
 * St. Peter's Basilica
 * Empire State Building
 * Statue of Liberty

Culinary

 * History

Recreation

 * Game
 * Gambling
 * Sport
 * Olympic Games
 * Baseball
 * Basketball
 * Cricket
 * Association football
 * Toy
 * Backgammon
 * Chess
 * Rugby football
 * Athletics
 * Go
 * Auto racing
 * Golf
 * Tennis
 * Martial arts
 * Judo
 * Karate

ה Thoughts and Beliefs
Philosophy (Continental philosophy, Existentialism, Humanism, Logical positivism, Modernism, Positivism, Postmodernism, Romanticism, Skepticism, Stoicism, Structuralism, Analytic philosophy, Phenomenology, Thomism)

Absolute, Science, Religion, Language, Math, Mind, Politics, Society, East, West, Indian, Chinese, American

Aesthetics, Beauty, Mimesis, Sublime

Free Will, Applied, Meta, Normative, Deontological, Nihilism, Relativism, Utilitarianism, Justice, Duty, Good and Evil, Liberty, Morality, Virtue, Wisdom

Occam's razor, Common sense, Conscience, Opinion, Paradigm, Reason, Empiricism, Naturalism, Pragmatism, Rationalism, Reductionism

Experience, Truth, Fact and Knowledge

Logic, Dialectic, Philosophical Logic, Argument, Inference, Paradox

Materialism, Reality, Form, Mind and Body, Metaphysics, Abstraction, Causality, Nothing, Determinism, Dualism, Idealism, Monism, Existence, Ontology

Religion

 * Atheism
 * Fundamentalism
 * Monotheism
 * Polytheism
 * Deity (Creator, Mother Goddess)

Theism, Agnosticism, Deism, Panentheism, Pantheism, Ecumenism, Neopaganism, Orthodoxy, Paganism, Syncretism, Unitarianism, Nontheism, Antitheism, Freethought


 * Zoroastrianism (Avesta, Parsi)
 * Traditional African religion
 * Shamanism
 * Chinese folk religion (Jade Emperor)
 * Hinduism (Trimurti, Yoga, Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism, Om, Avatar, Ayurveda, Bhagavad Gita, Brahma, Brahman, Dharma, Ishvara, Karma, Krishna, Kumbha Mela, Ramayana, Rigveda, Shiva, Upanishads, Vedas, Vedanta, Vishnu)
 * Shintoism
 * Confucianism (Four Books and Five Classics)
 * Buddhism [Zen, Mahayana (Avalokiteśvara, Diamond Sutra), Nirvana, Theravada (Pāli Canon), Tibetan Buddhism, Vajrayana]
 * Jainism
 * Taoism (Tao Te Ching)
 * Abrahamic (Adam & Eve, Druze, Angel, Holy Spirit, Messiah, Sin, Ten Commandments)
 * Jeudaism (Orthodox, Reform, Conservative, Passover, Rabbi, Synagogue, Torah, Tanakh, Talmud, Yom Kippur)
 * Christianity [Christian Church, Jehovah, Satan, Bible (New Testament, Old Testament), Christmas, Easter, Pentecost, Trinity, Nontrinitarianism, Catholicism (Catholic Church, Pope), Orthodox Christianity, Protestantism (Anglicanism, Baptism, Evangelicalism, Lutheranism, Methodism, Mormonism, Quakers), Oriental Orthodoxy, Church, Cathedral, Russian Orthodox Church, Calvinism]
 * Islam (Five Pillars of Islam, Schools/branches (Shia Islam, Sunni Islam, Sufism), Allah, Quran, Imam, Mosque, Hajj, Hadith, Kaaba, Muslim, Sharia)
 * Sikhism (Guru Granth Sahib, Harmandir Sahib)
 * Baha’i
 * Ayyavazhi

Priest, Spirituality, Soul, Meditation, Prayer, Adoration, Circumcision, Devil, Religious studies, Sacrifice, Comparative religion, Doctrine, Folk religion, Freedom of religion, Secularism, Theology

Animism, Creation myth, Curse, Eschatology, Faith, Myth of origins, Resurrection, Sacred, Supernatural, Totemism, Theophany

Apologetics, Fasting, Heresy, Icon, Iconoclasm, Idolatry, Liturgy, Pilgrimage, Prophecy, Religious conversion, Ritual, Veneration, Worship

Afterlife, Burial, Cemetery, Cremation, Crypt, Personification of Death, Funeral, Heaven & Hell, Mummy, Reincarnation, Spirit, Underworld

Altar, Anti-clericalism, Creed, Cult, Monastery, Denomination, Schism, Sect, Shrine, Temple

Myth
Mysticism, Freemasonry, Gnosticism, Magic (Astrology, Tarot, Witchcraft), Occultism, West African Vodun

Folklore, Australian Aboriginal mythology, Celtic polytheism, Germanic paganism, Lilith

Egyptian: Amun, Anubis, Aten, Hathor, Horus, Isis, Osiris, Ra

Greek: Zeus, Eros, Poseidon, Hades, Hera, Aphrodite, Artemis, Athena, Hestia, Ares, Hermes, Hephaestus, Apollo, Gaia

Native American: Quetzalcoatl

Norse: Freyja, Odin, Thor

Roman: Juno, Jupiter, Mars, Pluto, Venus, Vulcan

Psychology
Clinical Psychology, Cognitive, Evolutionary, Personality, Religion, Psychotherapy, Social

Genius, Hypnosis, Libido, Phobia, Pessimism, Perception, Stockholm syndrome, Cognition, Leadership, Creativity, Power, Optimism, Human nature, Imagination, Crying, Hyprocrisy, Oedipus complex, Sense, Memory

Analytical psychology, Behaviorism, Developmental, Gestalt, Humanistic, Psychoanalysis

Attention, Amnesia, Consciousness (Sleep, Dream), Instinct, Mind, Mood, Temperament, Personality, Motivation, Stereotype, Thought, Behavior, Emotion

Anger, Anxiety, Compassion, Courage, Curiosity, Disgust, Doubt, Envy, Fear, Guilt, Happiness, Hatred, Hope, Jealousy, Love, Lust, Pride, Sadness, Shame, Surprise, Humour, Pleasure, Suffering

Aggression, Altruism, Authority, Betrayal, Bullying, Charisma, Competition, Conformity, Egocentrism, Empathy, Forgiveness, Honour, Lie, Privacy, Prejudice, Punishment, Respect, Shyness, Trust

Time & Date

 * Sundial, clock
 * Age Death and Purpose
 * Gregorian calendar
 * Time zone

Language
Writing, Book

Clothing

Communication and Memes

Coloring, Signing, Language, Grammar, Linguistics, Literacy, Translation, Word (Phoneme, Syllable), Writing system, Arabic alphabet, Chinese characters, Cyrillic script, Greek alphabet, Hangul, Latin script alphabet

Arabic language, Bengali language, Chinese language, English language, Esperanto, French language, German language, Greek language, Hebrew language, Hindi-Urdu, Japanese language, Latin, Ithkuil, Portuguese language, Persian language, Russian language, Sanskrit, Spanish language, Swahili language, Turkish language

Language families: Afroasiatic (Semitic), Altaic, Austro-Asiatic, Austronesian, Dravidian, Eskimo–Aleut, Indo-European (Germanic languages, Iranian languages, Romance languages, Slavic languages), Khoisan languages, Niger–Congo languages, Nilo-Saharan languages, Sino-Tibetan languages, South Caucasian, Tai–Kadai languages, Tungusic languages, Turkic languages, Uralic languages, Uto-Aztecan languages

Identity, Sexuality (Human sexuality, Man, Woman, Heterosexuality, Homosexuality, Sexual intercourse, Safe sex, Fertility, Kiss, Sexual attraction, Sexual orientation, Bisexuality, Foreplay, Oral sex, Orgasm, Combined oral contraceptive pill, Condom, Masturbation, Prostitution, Pornography), Stages of life [Childhood (Newborn, Infant, Child), Youth, Adolescence, Adult, Old age]

Cultural Values
Myth and Ideology


 * Creation
 * Good and Evil
 * American Dream
 * Science
 * Spirit

Money and Productivity

Work and Accomplishment

Individuality

Sleep

Ethnicity
Bantu peoples, Basque people, Bushmen, Germanic peoples, Indigenous Australians, Indigenous peoples of the Americas (Cherokee), Inuit, Jews, Kurdish people, Maasai people, Mongols, Romani people, Slavic peoples, Tutsi, Arab people, Austronesian peoples, Berber people, Creole peoples, Han Chinese, Malayali, Māori people, Proto-Indo-Europeans, Semitic, Turkish people, Uyghur people

Family and kinship
Kinship, Family (Household, Nuclear, Extended, In-laws, affinity), Clan, Concubinage, Consanguinity, Godparent, Orphan, Pet, Significant others (Husband/Wife, Boyfriend/Girlfriend, Parent/Child, Father/Mother, Daughter/Son, Siblings/Twin, Grandparents/grandchildren, Uncle/Aunt, Cousin), Courtship, Romance (love), Dating, Interpersonal relationship (Casual relationship, Intimate relationship, Friendship, Cohabitation), Wedding, Marriage (Civil marriage, Civil union), Monogamy, Bigamy, Polygamy, Infidelity (Divorce), relationship, Intimate relationship, Friendship, Cohabitation), Wedding, Marriage (Civil marriage, Civil union), Monogamy, Family planning, Childbirth, Parenting, Adoption

Cooking, food and drink
Cooking (Baking, Frying), Cuisine, Food, Drink, Vitamin, Meal (Breakfast, Lunch, Dinner, Dessert) Cooking oil (Olive oil, Palm oil), Fast food, Restaurant, Vegetarianism

Food sources


 * Vegetable, Apricot, Blackberry, Lemon, Date, Olive, Pear, Pomegranate, Potato
 * Milk, Butter (Margarine), Cheese (blue, cheddar, Mozzarella, Parmigiano-Reggiano), Coconut milk, Ice cream, Soy milk (Tofu), Yogurt
 * Bread, Cereal, Flour
 * Candy, Caramel, Chocolate, Honey, Nut, Hazelnut, Walnut
 * Animal products: Egg, Meat (Bacon, Beef, Chicken, Ham, Hamburger, Hot dog, Lamb/mutton, Pork), Lard, Offal, Sausage, Seafood (Fish)
 * Condiment (Chutney, Fish sauce, Fruit preserves, Ketchup, Mayonnaise, Mustard, Paprika, Pesto, Soy sauce, Tartar sauce, Vinegar), Sauce
 * Herb (Anise, Basil, Black pepper, Cardamom, Cinnamon, Fennel, Garlic, Ginger, Horseradish, Lavandula, Lemongrass, Liquorice, Mentha, Onion, Parsley, Saffron), Spice
 * Cake, Curry, Fondue, French fries, Kebab, Noodles, Pasta, Pastry, Pie, Pizza, Porridge, Salad, Samosa, Sandwich, Soup, Stew, Sushi
 * Drinking water, Iced tea, Juice (Orange juice), Lemonade, Soft drink (Cola, Energy drink, Tonic water)
 * Tea (green, black), Coffee (Espresso, Turkish coffee), Hot chocolate, Mate, Alcoholic beverage, Distilled beverage, Beer, Brandy, Cider, Gin, Liqueur, Rum, Sake, Tequila, Vodka, Whisky, Wine (red, white, sparkling), Cocktail, Martini, Mojito, Sangri

Household items
Fashion: Belt, Burqa, Button, Cloak, Coat, Dress, Glove, Hat, Necktie, Trousers, Shoe, Scarf, Shirt, Skirt, Swimsuit, Sock, Hook and loop fastener, Zipper, Beard, Brassiere, Cosmetics, Perfume, Jewelry, Mask, Tattoo

Furniture: Bathtub, Bed, Bench, Cabinetry, Chair, Commode, Couch, Cupboard, Desk, Fireplace, Furniture, Home appliance, Table

Tools: Cookware, Cutlery, Fork, Spoon, Chopsticks, Plate, Textile, Bedding, Carpet, Curtain, Pillow

Business and Economics
Food (Africa, Australia, Azerbaijan, China, Croatia, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kuwait, Malaysia, Netherlands, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Portugal, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Singapore, South Korea, Spain, Sri Lanka ,Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, United Kingdom, Vietnam)

In Norway (Bama Gruppen, Brynild Gruppen, Cermaq, Coop Norge, Den Lille Nøttefabrikken, Drammens Is, Felleskjøpet, Fjordland, Friele, Gartnerhallen, Hennig-Olsen Iskremfabrikk, HOFF Norske Potetindustrier, Hval Sjokoladefabrikk, Isklar, Kavli, Kavli Trust, Lerum, Maarud, Nora Industrier, Nortura, Norway Royal Salmon, Orkla Group, SalMar, Synnøve Finden, Tine, Vinmonopolet)

In Bulgaria (Sofia Mel, Vitta Foods) In Ukraine (Chumak, Khortytsia, Konti Group, Kremenchukm'yaso, Nemiroff, Obolon, Roshen, Sandora, Soyuz-Viktan, Svitoch, Yarych Confectionery, ZhL)

In Poland (AmRest, Hortex, Indykpol, Kamis, Maspex, Tymbark, Winiary)

In Austria (Agrana, Brauerei Ottakringer, Do & Co, Julius Meinl, Manner, Pez, Rauch, Red Bull GmbH)

In Belgium (Anheuser-Busch InBev, Cavalier Chocolate, Confiserie Roodthooft, Delhaize Group, Duc d'O, Glacio, John Martin Brewery, Jules Destrooper, Le Pain Quotidien, Leonidas, Lotus Bakeries, Meurens, Neuhaus, Vanparys, Ysco)

In Canada (Agropur, Bothwell Cheese, Canyon Creek Food Company, Chapman's, Cott, Daiya, Dan-D Foods, Dare Foods, Earth's Own Food Company, Ganong Bros., Gay Lea, George Weston Limited, Jim Pattison Group, Just Us!, Kawartha Dairy Company, Lassonde Industries, Laura Secord Chocolates, Lester's Foods Ltd., M&M Food Market, Maple Leaf Foods, Maypole Dairy Products, McCain Foods, Metro Inc., Mike's Hard Lemonade Co., MTY Food Group, Nature's Path, Naya Waters, Olymel, Organic Meadow Cooperative, Première Moisson, Premium Brands Holdings Corporation, Purdy's Chocolates, Purity Factories, Recipe Unlimited, Restaurant Brands International, Rogers Sugar, Saputo, Sobeys, SunOpta, Voortman Cookies)

In US (Kraft (Cadburry), Coca Cola (Glaceau), Pepsico (Yum, Quaker), General Mills, Kellogs, Wrigley, Mars, Unilever, Johnson & Johnson, Procter & Gamble, Nestle)

In Mexico (Ah Cacao Real Chocolate, Alpura, Alsea, Bachoco, Búfalo, Chilchota Alimentos, Cholula Hot Sauce, Gruma, Grupo Anderson's, Grupo Bimbo, Grupo La Norteñita, Grupo Lala, Ibarra, Jarritos, Jose Cuervo, La Costeña, Mayordomo, Sidral Mundet, Sigma Alimentos, Valentina)

In Cuba (José Arechabala S.A.) In Caribbean (Nomad Foods) In Trinidad & Tobego (Bermudez Biscuit Company, Carib Brewery, Flavorite Ice Cream, House of Angostura, K.C. Confectionery Limited, Kiss Baking Company Limited, S. M. Jaleel and Company, Solo Beverage Company)

In Brazil (Brazilian Fast Food Corporation, BRF S.A., Copacol, Garoto, Grupo Petrópolis, International Meal Company, JBS S.A., Marfrig, Vigor S.A.)

In Colombia (Alpina Productos Alimenticios, Grupo Nutresa, Postobón, Quala)

In Venezuela (Alimentos La Giralda, Chocolates El Rey, Empresas Polar)

In Peru (Ajegroup, Alicorp, Corporación Lindley S.A., Don Jorge, Enrique Cassinelli and Sons, La Iberica)

In Chile (Castaño, Compañía de las Cervecerías Unidas, Concha y Toro, IANSA, Soprole) In Argentina (Grupo Arcor, Havanna, La Serenísima, Molinos Río de la Plata, SanCor)

Stock Market

Dow Jones Industrial Average, New York SE, Nasdaq, Japan Exchange Group, London SE, Shanghai SE, Hong Kong SE, Euronext, Toronto SE, Shenzhen SE, Bombay SE, Australia Securities Exchange, Bursa Malaysia, Bolsas y Mercados Espanoles, Sao Paulo SE, Tashkent SE, Korea Exchange

market, equity, credit, instrument, security, bond, loan, option, future, forward, margin, swap, warrant, index, hedge, short, long, externality

Media
1996 Telecom Act, CSPAN, PBS, AT&T, Comcast, Disney, National Amusements, News Corp, Netflix, Sinclair, Time Warner, CNN, HBO, Adult Swim, Cartoon Network, Cinemax, Warner Brothers, Time Werner Cable, Rocksteady Games, TBS, TNT, TruTV, Time Magazine, Turner Classic Movies, USA Network, (MS)NBC, Bravo, Oxygen, Big Idea, MLB Network, NHL Network, Fandango, Rotten Tomatoes, Focus Features, SciFi, Universal Pictures, Working Title Films, DC Comics, Marvel, Lucasfilm, CBS News, Gamespot, Simon & Schuster, Paramount, Nickelodeon, Gamespot, Game FAQs, CNET, Comedy Central, Showtime, Spike, Smithsonian channel, VH1, MTV, BET, CBS, Viacom, FOX news, 20th century FOX, FX, GQ, Harper Collins, New York Post, National Geographic, Zondervan, Marketwatch, Sky News, Wall St. Journal, Hulu, ABC, Pixar, Dreamworks, ESPN, Lifetime, History Channel, Hollywood Records, Touchstone Pictures, VICE

Outline
Atoms form molecules which form organelles which form cells which form organs which form systems composing organisms.

Ecology
Organisms interact with each other in environments. The population of a certain species changes depending on where its community is and how other populations interact, like through predation, cooperation, or competition for food, water, living space resources. Their ecosystem constitutes the non-living environment, like the topography, soil components, and climate of the water and air. We study how the materials in an ecosystem impact the life within. The biome is where organisms have evolved similar techniques to adapt to general conditions. These are part of the biosphere that makes Earth. Living factors

Organisms
There are six kingdoms of life, plants, animals, archaebacteria, eubacteria, fungi, and protists. Plants collect their food from the sun and power ecosystems. Plants colonized land 400mya and adapted to the dry air conditions with chlorophyll, starch storage, moist gamete protection within cell tissues, gas exchange leaf openings, wax surfaces preventing water loss, roots to pull soil water and nutrients, conduction tissues for transport, and gravity support tissues. Their gametes can be similarly sized and motile, or the male gamete can be smaller, more motile, and with few nutrient reserves. Plants have two life phases as a gametophyte (haploid) and through syngamy into a sporophyte (diploid) and through meoisis back into a gametophyte, which may be morphologically the same or distinct from the sporophyte, through becoming an Archegonium or Antheridium combining into a zygote and developing into an embryo. The sporophyte becomes sporangia that produces spores for dispersal, which germinate into a gametophyte. Nonvascular plants were first on land and live in moist environments. The sporophyte is nutritionally dependent on the gametophyte, which releases gametes into water. Liverworts (Hepatophyta) are basic, hornworts (Anthocerophyta) have a growing region and foot, and mosses (Bryophyta) have capsules, seta, and feet.

Seedless vascular plants have xylem and phloem. These include ferns, whisk ferns, horsetails, club mosses. Seeded vascular plants are mostly angiosperms, as opposed to gymnosperms.

ט‎ Physics
Materials can take a lattice structure (sodium chloride, cristobalite). Atoms have electrons in numbered shells (n) for each row of the periodic table. They exists as opposite-spin pairs in orbitals (ml) which compose subshells (l) like (s, p, d, f,g). Energy levels and quantum jumps. Bohr-Summerfield model of H. Nuclear fission takes the spontaneous decay of radioactive material like Uranium and controls the chain reaction in a reactor to absorb heat. A bubble chamber shows high-energy ionizing particles. Cyclotron. Geiger counter.

כ‎ Technology
The engineering process complements the scientific method by solving problems given a large background of knowledge. We apply mathematics to solve military and civil obstacles given the time and resources at available. Over a short period of time, this process was applied in mechanics, transportation, and medicine, before the Industrial Revolution gave way to electrical, industrial, nuclear, and computational technologies.

Outline
Technology

Engineering (Military, Civil, Mechanical, Aerospace, Biomedical, Electrical, Industrial, Nuclear, Software)

Artificial intelligence

Biotechnology (Cloning, GMO)

Genetic Engineering

Nanotechnology

Nuclear technology

Transhumanism

Control engineering

Standardization

Disruptive innovation

Transport engineering

Construction engineering

Petroleum engineering

Naval architecture

Innovation

Technophobia

Microtechnology

Engineering drawing

Automation

Technological convergence

Science studies

Science, technology and society

High tech

Engineering management

Food engineering

Technological change

Human reliability

Technological determinism

Municipal or urban engineering

Earthquake engineering

Coastal management

Ceramic engineering

Engineering ethics

Agricultural engineering

Agricultural science, Agricultural policy, Agronomy, Domestication, Farm, Farmer, Green Revolution, Selective breeding, Kolkhoz

Barn, Granary, Grain elevator, Stable, Greenhouse

Combine harvester, Cultivar, Fertilizer, Gardening, Harvest, Insecticide, Irrigation, Pesticide (Herbicide), Plant breeding, Tillage, Winnowing

Animal husbandry, Beekeeping, Livestock, Breed, Poultry

Garden, Crop, Cotton, Hemp, Hay, Weed

Dairy, Extensive farming, Fish farming, Industrial agriculture, Intensive farming, Orchard, Organic farming, Permaculture, Sericulture, Subsistence agriculture, Sustainable agriculture, Urban agriculture

Asphalt, Adobe, Suspension bridge, Reinforced concrete, Moat, Mud, Bulldozer, Mortar, Plaster, Tile, Building material, Foundation, Numerical control, Stucco, Breakwater

Building, Architectural engineering, Building code, Infrastructure, Structural engineering

Nail, Brick, Cement, Concrete, Masonry, Scaffolding

Arch, Ceiling, Column, Dome, Door, Facade, Floor, Roof, Room, Stairs, Wall, Window

Harbor, Lighthouse, Pier, Office, Warehouse, Apartment, Barracks, House, Pagoda, Palace, Penthouse apartment, Pyramid, Skyscraper, Tower, Tower block, Villa, Hut, Igloo, Tent, Yurt

Basement, Bathroom, Bedroom, Dining room, Garage, Kitchen, Living room, Pantry

Urban planning, Urban design, Campus, City block, Downtown, Ghetto, Industrial park, Park, Street, Town square, Zoning

Dam (Hoover Dam, Three Gorges Dam)

Bridge (Akashi Kaikyō Bridge, Bang Na Expressway, Brooklyn Bridge, Danyang–Kunshan Grand Bridge, Fehmarn Belt Fixed Link, George Washington Bridge, Golden Gate Bridge, Great Belt Fixed Link, Hangzhou Bay Bridge, Lake Pontchartrain Causeway, London Bridge, Øresund connection, Russky Bridge, Tower Bridge), Tunnel (Channel Tunnel, Seikan Tunnel)

Leather, Silk, Wool

Atomic clock, Celestial navigation, Clock, Compass, Dead reckoning, Global Positioning System, Gyroscope, Pendulum, Radar, Sonar, Sundial, Navigation, Sextant, Watch, Azimuth, Sidereal time, Astrolabe, Water clock, Satellite navigation, Hourglass

Industrial robot, Mass production, Mechanization, Waste (Landfill, Recycling, Waste management), Woodworking

Geothermal electricity, Hydroelectricity, Nuclear power, Solar energy, Solar power, Renewable energy, Wind power, Candle, Windmill, Hydropower

Electricity generation, Power station, Cooling tower, Solar cell, Turbine, Wind turbine

Electrical grid, Electric power transmission, Electric power distribution, Fossil fuel, Coal, Gasoline, Kerosene, Natural gas, Petroleum

Microwave oven, Pasteurization, Refrigerator, Soap, Stove, Scuba set, Vacuum flask, Laundry, Sanitation, Sewer, Sewage treatment, Water purification, Aqueduct, Plumbing, Pumping station, Water tower, Water well

Explosive material (Dynamite), Metallurgy, Plastic, Natural rubber, Adhesive, Ore, Paper, Papyrus, Lumber, Petrochemical

Metalworking, Blacksmith, Die casting, Drilling, Extrusion, Laser cutting, Machine press, Quenching, Rolling, Soldering, Welding

Machine, Centrifuge, Engine (Internal combustion, Steam), Robot, Simple machine (Inclined plane, Lever, Pulley, Screw, Wedge, Wheel, Axel), Robotics, System, Crane

Axle, Bearing, Clutch, Gear, Worm drive, Cable, Chain, Rope, Net, Twine, Fastener, Nut, Knot, Rivet, Washer, Kinematic pair, Lock, Key, Pipe, Gasket, Spring

Chainsaw, Cotton gin, Cultivator, Irrigation sprinkler, Lawn mower, Sewing machine, Tractor, Air conditioning, Clothes dryer, Coffeemaker, Dishwasher, Oven, Sink, Electric stove, Toilet, Vacuum cleaner, Washing machine

Tool, Archimedes' screw, Axe, Hammer, Saw, Chisel, Clamp, Lathe, Plane (tool), Sandpaper, Scissors, Screwdriver, Broom, Ruler, Ladder, Toothbrush, Drill, Anvil, Clothes iron, Eraser

Harrow, Hoe, Machete, Pitchfork, Plough, Rake, Roller,Scythe, Sickle, Shovel, Watering can

Cargo, Conveyor belt, Elevator, Escalator, Intermodal container, Logistics, Passenger, Pipeline transport, Public transport, Rush hour, Transport, Travel, Vehicle

Automobile, Automotive industry, Electric car, Taxicab, Ford Model T, Volkswagen Beetle, Toyota Corolla, VAZ-2101, Ford Motor Company, General Motors, Honda, Hyundai Motor Company, Nissan Motor Company, PSA Peugeot Citroën, Renault, Suzuki, Toyota, Volkswagen

Auto rickshaw, Bicycle, Bus (Trolley), Bus station, Carriage, Motorcycle, Road (Controlled-access), Saddle, Stirrup, Traffic, Traffic accident, Traffic sign, Trail, Truck, Van

Express train, Locomotive (Steam), London Underground, Maglev train, Moscow Metro, New York City Subway, Paris Métro, Rail transportation, Railway signal, Railway system, Train, Train station, Trans-Siberian Railway, Tram, Subterranean rapid transit (i.e. subway)

Barge, Boat, Canoe, Caravel, Container ship, Cruise ship, Ferry, Hovercraft, Junk (ship), Port, Raft, Rowing, Sail, Sailing, Ship, Tanker, Watercraft

Airbus, Aircraft, Airline, Airliner, Airplane, Airport, Airship, Aviation, Balloon, Bombardier Aerospace, Boeing, Cargo aircraft, Embraer, Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport, Helicopter, Kite, Parachute, Tupolev, Unmanned aerial vehicle

Weapon, Chariot, Stealth technology, Tank, Torpedo, War elephant

Ammunition, Cartridge, Gunpowder, Arrow, Bullet (Caliber)

Armour, Bulletproof vest, Combat helmet, Helmet, Mail, Plate armour, Shield

Club, Nunchaku, Bayonet, Battle axe, Dagger, Épée, Katana, Knife, Rapier, Sabre, Spear, Sword, Tomahawk

Firearm: Assault rifle (AK-47), Handgun, Machine gun (Uzi), Rifle

Explosive/Incendiary: Greek fire, Molotov cocktail, Napalm, Bomb, Cluster munition, Improvised explosive device, Hand grenade, Land mine, Missile

Artillery: Battering ram, Cannon, Howitzer, Mortar (weapon)

Aviation: Military aircraft, Bomber, Fighter aircraft, Attack aircraft

Naval: Battleship, Aircraft carrier, Dreadnought, Dromon, Galley, Submarine, Capital ship, Ship of the line, Trireme, Warship

Projectiles: Ballista, Boomerang, Bow and arrow, Catapult, Crossbow, Musket, Shotgun, Sling (weapon)

Weapon of mass destruction: Biological warfare, Chemical weapon, Nuclear weapon (Thermonuclear)

Anti-reflective coating, Diffraction grating, Focal length, Focus, Fresnel lens, Mirror, Polarizer, Rayleigh scattering, Dispersion

Binoculars, Interferometry, Catadioptric system, Reflecting telescope, Refracting telescope

Camera, Glasses, Laser, Lens, Microscope, Prism, Telescope, Holography, Optical fiber, Photodetector, Optical illusion, Albedo, Depth of field, Photodiode, Camera obscura, Periscope

Electronic (Alternating current, Amplifier (Operational), Circuit design, Direct current, Electronic amplifier, Oscilloscope, Relay, Signal processing, Mechatronics)

An electronic component affects electrons or electron fields.

A Resistor is a passive electronic that decreases current or divides voltage. In a continuous series, its resistances add linearly to the total. In a forked parallel, its reciprocal resistances add to the reciprocal total. They can be variable, for example as potentiometers.

Component (Antenna, Battery, Capacitor, Diode (LED), Flat panel display, Incandescent light bulb, Inductor, Integrated circuit, Cavity magnetron, Semiconductor, Transformer, Transistor, Vacuum Tube, Waveguide, Cathode ray tube, Printed circuit board, Electrical connector, Loudspeaker, Power supply, Switch, Circuit breaker, Fuse, Wire, Flip-flop, Thyristor)

Broadcasting (Communications satellite), Photography, Printing (Printer, Printing press), Publishing, Radio (Amateur radio, Radio broadcasting station), Telecommunication, Telegraphy, Telephone, Television (Cable, Satellite), Typewriter, Video (Video camera, Videotape), Data storage (Floppy disk, Magnetic tape, Memory card, Optical disc), Mail (Postage stamp), Courier, Mobile device (Cell phone), Photocopier, Social media, Blog, Sound recording/reproduction (Microphone, Speech synthesis), Coding theory, Data transmission, Forward error correction, Modulation, Video game console

The telegraph is first commercialized in 1837. The telephone is commercialized in 1876. The wireless telegraph or radio is commercialized in 1894. There are Amateur Radio and Radio Broadcasting Stations. The first radio news program is broadcast in 1920. AM stations are used for navigation until VHF Omnidirectional Range systems become popular. Single-Sideband modulation become standardized in the 1930s. Commercial television transmissions begins in the 1940s and in 1963 color television is broadcast. Television sets use cathode ray tubes. The telephone also grows more popular and commercialized. MOSFETs come into use in FM radio technology and MOS LSI is economical. In the 1970s radio communications satelites are launched and in 1987 GPS is developed. Digital television transmitted in standard definition and high definition.

Motion picture and television tangents: 70mm, aspect ratio, framerate, interlaced video, 3-2 pulldown anamophic format, vectorscope, waveform monitor, rec. 709, 250D vs. 800T

Information technology (Abacus, Calculator, Computing, Data, Expert system, Internationalization and localization)

A Computer is a machine that takes input to do computations with and produces an output. It is ubiquitously electronic-based and outnumbers the number of people today. Newer computers use VLSI integrated circuits to process information through control units. Computers can be modeled theoretically as Turing Machines or expressions of lambda calculus. They are very versatile in using many layers of abstraction and can be linked into the World Wide Web. Experts are applying quantum mechanics, optics, and organic material to leverage the powers of computation.

A Hard disk drive is a mechanical storage device using magnets to read and write digital data.

A CPU was built from vacuum tubes and relays until the invention of the printed circuit board. On the company IBM created the System/360. On the PDP-8 was created. The use of transistors increased clock speed to tens of megahertz. Integrated circuits were built from semiconductors as small-scale integration CPUs. Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors were built as large-scale integration CPUs.

Booting, Compact Disc, ENIAC, Motherboard, Random-access memory (Dynamic), Read-only memory, Peripheral

Operating system (Berkeley Software Distribution, Linux, Mac OS, Microsoft Windows, MS-DOS, Multics, OpenVMS, Unix, GNU)

User interface (Computer keyboard, Computer monitor (Liquid crystal display), Mouse, Touchscreen)

Computer programming (Paradigm, Functional, Object-oriented, Structured)

Programming language (Ada, Assembly, BASIC, C, C++, COBOL, Fortran, Java, JavaScript, Lisp, PHP, Python, SQL)

Computer science, Algorithm, Compiler, Data compression, Data structure, Error detection and correction, Numerical integration, Search engine

Computer network, Ethernet, Router, Wi-Fi

Internet (Email, Transmission Control Protocol, World Wide Web, Hypertext Transfer Protocol, HTML, Internet protocol suite, Web search engine, Website, Wiki)

Atacama Large Millimeter Array, European Space Agency, Great Observatories program, Herschel Space Observatory, Hubble Space Telescope, International Space Station, James Webb Space Telescope, Moon landing, NASA, Apollo program (Apollo 11), Rocket, Satellite, Soyuz, Spaceflight, Space Shuttle, Space station, Spitzer Space Telescope, Very Large Telescope, Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe, Astronaut, Launch vehicle, Rocket engine, Space capsule, Spaceport, Space probe, Space suit, Baikonur Cosmodrome, China National Space Administration, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Kennedy Space Center, Geosynchronous orbit, Sputnik 1, Voyager 1, Proton, Saturn V, Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory, Mauna Kea Observatories, Mount Wilson Observatory, Palomar Observatory, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Ion thruster, Astronautics, Vostok programme (Vostok 1)