User:Chris.urs-o/Sandbox.002

Intro

Eruptions of the Decade Volcanoes (Avachinsky-Koryaksky, Kamchatka; Colima, Jalisco and Colima; Mount Etna, Sicily; Galeras, Andes, Northern Volcanic Zone; Mauna Loa, Hawaii; Mount Merapi, Central Java; Mount Nyiragongo, East African Rift; Mount Rainier, Washington; Sakurajima, Kagoshima Prefecture; Santamaria/Santiaguito, Central America Arc; Santorini, Cyclades; Taal Volcano, Luzon Arc; Teide, Canary Islands; Ulawun, New Britain; Mount Unzen, Nagasaki Prefecture; Mount Vesuvius, Naples)

Mount Pinatubo, Luzon Arc; Toba, Sunda Arc; Mount Meager, Garibaldi Volcanic Belt; Yellowstone hotspot, Wyoming; Long Valley Caldera region, California; Valles Caldera, New Mexico and Taupo Volcanic Zone


 * List of large volcanic eruptions
 * Large volume volcanic eruptions in the Basin and Range Province
 * Timetable of major worldwide volcanic eruptions
 * List of potentially dangerous volcanic eruptions


 * Global Volcanism Program
 * Smithsonian Institution
 * Holocene
 * Volcanic Explosivity Index

Geology

 * Stanford
 * Earthbyte
 * Oregon
 * Washington
 * Idaho
 * Volcanoes Univ. of San Diego
 * New Mexico,
 * Oregon
 * Washington
 * Idaho
 * Idaho Basin and Range Province - Tertiary Extension
 * 
 * Iowa
 * Map: USGS Miscellaneous Investigations Series Map I-2206, Thelin and Pike (1991) Landforms of the conterminous United States - A digital shaded-relief portrayal, USGS Map I-2206
 * Digital Tectonic Activity Map (DTAM)
 * 
 * Dakota: High Lava Plains trend, Brennan T. Jordan, Earth Sciences Program, University of South Dakota
 * New Mexico, Thesis:
 * Thesis, Mogollon-Datil:
 * Arizona,
 * Texas,
 * 
 * Oregon, uni
 * 
 * orogenese
 * Tanguy, J.-C., Ribière, C., Scarth, A., Tjetjep, W.S. (1998): Victims from volcanic eruptions: a revised database. Bulletin of Volcanology 60 (2), 137-144. Online-Version
 * Witham, C. (2005): Volcanic disasters and incidents: A new database. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 148, 191-233. Online-Version
 * The Significant Volcanic Eruption Database des National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC), NOAA
 * Washington,
 * Campania
 * di Brozolo F.R., Di Girolamo P., Turi B., Oddone M. 40Ar-39Ar and K-Ar dating of K-rich rocks from the Roccamonfina Volcano, Roman comagmatic Region, Italy (1988) Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 52 (6), pp. 1435-1441.
 * The Socorro Midcrustal Magma Body Robert S. Balch, Hans E. Hartse, Allan R. Sanford and Kuo-wan Lin
 * Journal of Petrology | Volume 13 | Number 3 | Pages 425-456 | 1972 Petrogenesis of Potassium-rich Lavas from the Roccamonfina Volcano, Roman Region, Italy J. D. APPLETON
 * http://www.earthbyte.org/people/dietmar/dmuller_publications.html
 * http://books.google.ch/books?id=0z74GC0rA5kC&pg=PA92&lpg=PA92&dq=flood+basalt+events+mark+the+earliest+volcanic+activity+of+many+major+hot+spots&source=bl&ots=f4nUbe-6Tj&sig=vtDOqQd4rnZLfk1mXT7m-PwRfEU&hl=de&ei=7I5dTJy7DYz-OcbbidYG&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=flood%20basalt%20events%20mark%20the%20earliest%20volcanic%20activity%20of%20many%20major%20hot%20spots&f=false
 * Journal of Petrology | Volume 13 | Number 3 | Pages 425-456 | 1972 Petrogenesis of Potassium-rich Lavas from the Roccamonfina Volcano, Roman Region, Italy J. D. APPLETON
 * http://www.earthbyte.org/people/dietmar/dmuller_publications.html
 * http://books.google.ch/books?id=0z74GC0rA5kC&pg=PA92&lpg=PA92&dq=flood+basalt+events+mark+the+earliest+volcanic+activity+of+many+major+hot+spots&source=bl&ots=f4nUbe-6Tj&sig=vtDOqQd4rnZLfk1mXT7m-PwRfEU&hl=de&ei=7I5dTJy7DYz-OcbbidYG&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=flood%20basalt%20events%20mark%20the%20earliest%20volcanic%20activity%20of%20many%20major%20hot%20spots&f=false
 * http://www.earthbyte.org/people/dietmar/dmuller_publications.html
 * http://books.google.ch/books?id=0z74GC0rA5kC&pg=PA92&lpg=PA92&dq=flood+basalt+events+mark+the+earliest+volcanic+activity+of+many+major+hot+spots&source=bl&ots=f4nUbe-6Tj&sig=vtDOqQd4rnZLfk1mXT7m-PwRfEU&hl=de&ei=7I5dTJy7DYz-OcbbidYG&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=flood%20basalt%20events%20mark%20the%20earliest%20volcanic%20activity%20of%20many%20major%20hot%20spots&f=false

Ages

 * Slice 31: Upper Tejas II – Burdigalian – Serravallian – 20-11 Ma
 * Slice 30: Upper Tejas I – Chattian – Aquitanian – 29-20 Ma
 * Slice 29: Lower Tejas III – Priabonian – Rupelian – 37-29 Ma
 * Slice 28: Lower Tejas II – Lutetian – Bartonian – 49-37 Ma
 * Slice 27: Lower Tejas I – Thanetian – Ypresian – 58-49 Ma
 * Slice 26: Upper Zuni IV – middle Campanian – Selandian (Late Cretaceous – earliest Paleogene) – 81-58 Ma
 * Slice 25: Upper Zuni III – late Cenomanian – early Campanian (Late Cretaceous) – 94-81 Ma
 * Slice 24: Upper Zuni II – late Aptian – middle Cenomanian (Early Cretaceous – earliest Late Cretaceous) – 117-94 Ma

Library

 * Brazil
 * Brazil
 * Brazil
 * Brazil
 * Brazil

Second part

 * Explosive Volcanism: Inception, Evolution, and Hazard, National Research Council, Geophysics Study Committee
 * Smith, R.L. and Luedke, R.G., 1984, Potentially active volcanic lineaments and loci in western conterminous United States, in: Explosive Volcanism: Inception, Evolution, and Hazard, National Research Council, Geophysics Study Committee, 47-66.
 * Donald A. Singer, An Analysis of Nevada's Metal-Bearing Mineral Resources
 * C. A. Wood and J. Kienle, Volcanoes of North America
 * Royal Society of London Philosophical Transactions ser. A, vol. 271
 * Supplemental material: Columbia River Basalt Group,  eruptive loci
 * Royal Society of London Philosophical Transactions ser. A, vol. 271
 * Supplemental material: Columbia River Basalt Group,  eruptive loci
 * Supplemental material: Columbia River Basalt Group,  eruptive loci
 * Supplemental material: Columbia River Basalt Group,  eruptive loci
 * Supplemental material: Columbia River Basalt Group,  eruptive loci

Mount St. Helens

 * Rutherford, M.J., and Devine, J.D., 1988, The May 18, 1980, eruption of Mount St. Helens, III; stability and chemistry of amphibole in the magma chamber: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 93, no. B10, p. 11949–11959.
 * Rutherford, M.J., Sigurdsson, H., Carey, S., and Davis, A., 1985, The May 18, 1980, eruption of Mount St. Helens, 1; melt composition and experimental phase equilibria: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 90, no. B4, p. 2929–2947.
 * The May 18, 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens 2. Modeling of dynamics of the plinian phase S Carey, H Sigurdsson - Journal of Geophysical Research, 1985
 * Magma ascent rates from amphibole breakdown: an experimental study applied to the 1980–1986 Mount St. Helens eruptions MJ Rutherford, PM Hill - Journal of Geophysical Research, 1993
 * Magmatic conditions and processes in the storage zone of the 2004–2006 Mount St. Helens dacite [PDF] MJ Rutherford, JD Devine - … renewed eruption of Mount St. Helens, 2004
 * Foxworthy and Hill, 1982. Volcanic Eruption of 1980 at Mount St. Helens: The First 100 Days: USGS Professional Paper 1249.
 * Foxworthy and Hill, 1982. Volcanic Eruption of 1980 at Mount St. Helens: The First 100 Days: USGS Professional Paper 1249.

Mount Pinatubo

 * 
 * The 15 June 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo. I. Phase equilibria and pre-eruption PT-fO2-fH2O conditions of the dacite [PDF] B Scaillet, BW Evans - Journal of Petrology, 1999

Laki eruption

 * Atmospheric impact of the 1783–1784 Laki Eruption: Part I Chemistry modelling D. S. Stevenson, C. E. Johnson, E. J. Highwood, V. Gauci, W. J. Collins, and R. G. Derwent Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 3, 551–596, 2003
 * Atmospheric impact of the 1783–1784 Laki Eruption: Part II Climatic effect of sulphate aerosol E. J. Highwood and D. S. Stevenson Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 3, 1599–1629, 2003

Yellowstone

 * Four National Science Foundation-funded studies:
 * http://www.mantleplumes.org/HighLavaPlains.html
 * High Lava Plains province (HLP) Yellowstone-Snake River Plain volcanic system (YSRP), Steens and Columbia River Flood Basalts
 * http://www.physorg.com/news179994313.html
 * Smith conducted the seismic study with six University of Utah present or former geophysicists - former postdoctoral researchers Michael Jordan, of SINTEF Petroleum Research in Norway, and Stephan Husen, of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology; postdoc Christine Puskas; Ph.D. student Jamie Farrell; and former Ph.D. students Gregory Waite, now at Michigan Technological University, and Wu-Lung Chang, of National Central University in Taiwan. Other co-authors were Bernhard Steinberger of the Geological Survey of Norway and Richard O'Connell of Harvard University. Smith conducted the gravity study with former University of Utah graduate student Katrina DeNosaquo and Tony Lowry of Utah State University in Logan. four National Science Foundation-funded studies in the latest issue of the Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. The studies were led by Robert B. Smith, research professor and professor emeritus of geophysics at the University of Utah and coordinating scientist for the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory.
 * http://www.mantleplumes.org/HighLavaPlains.html
 * High Lava Plains province (HLP) Yellowstone-Snake River Plain volcanic system (YSRP), Steens and Columbia River Flood Basalts
 * http://www.physorg.com/news179994313.html
 * Smith conducted the seismic study with six University of Utah present or former geophysicists - former postdoctoral researchers Michael Jordan, of SINTEF Petroleum Research in Norway, and Stephan Husen, of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology; postdoc Christine Puskas; Ph.D. student Jamie Farrell; and former Ph.D. students Gregory Waite, now at Michigan Technological University, and Wu-Lung Chang, of National Central University in Taiwan. Other co-authors were Bernhard Steinberger of the Geological Survey of Norway and Richard O'Connell of Harvard University. Smith conducted the gravity study with former University of Utah graduate student Katrina DeNosaquo and Tony Lowry of Utah State University in Logan. four National Science Foundation-funded studies in the latest issue of the Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. The studies were led by Robert B. Smith, research professor and professor emeritus of geophysics at the University of Utah and coordinating scientist for the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory.
 * http://www.mantleplumes.org/HighLavaPlains.html
 * High Lava Plains province (HLP) Yellowstone-Snake River Plain volcanic system (YSRP), Steens and Columbia River Flood Basalts
 * http://www.physorg.com/news179994313.html
 * Smith conducted the seismic study with six University of Utah present or former geophysicists - former postdoctoral researchers Michael Jordan, of SINTEF Petroleum Research in Norway, and Stephan Husen, of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology; postdoc Christine Puskas; Ph.D. student Jamie Farrell; and former Ph.D. students Gregory Waite, now at Michigan Technological University, and Wu-Lung Chang, of National Central University in Taiwan. Other co-authors were Bernhard Steinberger of the Geological Survey of Norway and Richard O'Connell of Harvard University. Smith conducted the gravity study with former University of Utah graduate student Katrina DeNosaquo and Tony Lowry of Utah State University in Logan. four National Science Foundation-funded studies in the latest issue of the Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. The studies were led by Robert B. Smith, research professor and professor emeritus of geophysics at the University of Utah and coordinating scientist for the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory.
 * http://www.mantleplumes.org/HighLavaPlains.html
 * High Lava Plains province (HLP) Yellowstone-Snake River Plain volcanic system (YSRP), Steens and Columbia River Flood Basalts
 * http://www.physorg.com/news179994313.html
 * Smith conducted the seismic study with six University of Utah present or former geophysicists - former postdoctoral researchers Michael Jordan, of SINTEF Petroleum Research in Norway, and Stephan Husen, of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology; postdoc Christine Puskas; Ph.D. student Jamie Farrell; and former Ph.D. students Gregory Waite, now at Michigan Technological University, and Wu-Lung Chang, of National Central University in Taiwan. Other co-authors were Bernhard Steinberger of the Geological Survey of Norway and Richard O'Connell of Harvard University. Smith conducted the gravity study with former University of Utah graduate student Katrina DeNosaquo and Tony Lowry of Utah State University in Logan. four National Science Foundation-funded studies in the latest issue of the Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. The studies were led by Robert B. Smith, research professor and professor emeritus of geophysics at the University of Utah and coordinating scientist for the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory.

Center for Geodynamics

 * , uses a moving hotspot frame after 100 Ma.
 * Carmen Gaina, Center for Geodynamics, Norges Geologiske Undersokelse [NGU, Norwegian Geological Survey], Trondheim 7491, Norway
 * The hypothesis of continental drift (1912-1929), evolved to seafloor spreading (around 1962), and more recently to the theory of plate tectonics (around 1967). Alfred Wegener based his publications on cartography, paleontology, glacial striations and old orogenic uplifts. But paleomagnetism, reflection seismology, sonar survey and gravity anomaly survey were needed to etablish the hypothesis. Nowadays, the Centre for Geodynamics has a leading role in the new era of Mantle Dynamics (e.g. 3-D Computer Simulations)
 * Carmen Gaina, Center for Geodynamics, Norges Geologiske Undersokelse [NGU, Norwegian Geological Survey], Trondheim 7491, Norway
 * The hypothesis of continental drift (1912-1929), evolved to seafloor spreading (around 1962), and more recently to the theory of plate tectonics (around 1967). Alfred Wegener based his publications on cartography, paleontology, glacial striations and old orogenic uplifts. But paleomagnetism, reflection seismology, sonar survey and gravity anomaly survey were needed to etablish the hypothesis. Nowadays, the Centre for Geodynamics has a leading role in the new era of Mantle Dynamics (e.g. 3-D Computer Simulations)
 * Carmen Gaina, Center for Geodynamics, Norges Geologiske Undersokelse [NGU, Norwegian Geological Survey], Trondheim 7491, Norway
 * The hypothesis of continental drift (1912-1929), evolved to seafloor spreading (around 1962), and more recently to the theory of plate tectonics (around 1967). Alfred Wegener based his publications on cartography, paleontology, glacial striations and old orogenic uplifts. But paleomagnetism, reflection seismology, sonar survey and gravity anomaly survey were needed to etablish the hypothesis. Nowadays, the Centre for Geodynamics has a leading role in the new era of Mantle Dynamics (e.g. 3-D Computer Simulations)
 * Carmen Gaina, Center for Geodynamics, Norges Geologiske Undersokelse [NGU, Norwegian Geological Survey], Trondheim 7491, Norway
 * The hypothesis of continental drift (1912-1929), evolved to seafloor spreading (around 1962), and more recently to the theory of plate tectonics (around 1967). Alfred Wegener based his publications on cartography, paleontology, glacial striations and old orogenic uplifts. But paleomagnetism, reflection seismology, sonar survey and gravity anomaly survey were needed to etablish the hypothesis. Nowadays, the Centre for Geodynamics has a leading role in the new era of Mantle Dynamics (e.g. 3-D Computer Simulations)
 * The hypothesis of continental drift (1912-1929), evolved to seafloor spreading (around 1962), and more recently to the theory of plate tectonics (around 1967). Alfred Wegener based his publications on cartography, paleontology, glacial striations and old orogenic uplifts. But paleomagnetism, reflection seismology, sonar survey and gravity anomaly survey were needed to etablish the hypothesis. Nowadays, the Centre for Geodynamics has a leading role in the new era of Mantle Dynamics (e.g. 3-D Computer Simulations)

Biographies (scientists & librarians)

 * Geologists:
 * Peter W. Lipman (BLP), Michael R. Rampino (BLP), Charles E. Chapin (BLP), J.C. Ratté (BLP), R.L. Christiansen (BLP), William C. McIntosh
 * Chris Newhall of the U.S. Geological Survey and Steve Self (BLP), at the University of Hawaii
 * Prof. Dr. Hans-Ulrich Schmincke dem ehemaligen Leiter der Abteilung für Vulkanologie des Geomar Institutes
 * de:Leibniz-Institut für Meereswissenschaften an der Universität Kiel (IFM-GEOMAR)
 * Dr. Setsuya Nakada, Volcano Research Center, Earthquake Research Institute, University of Tokyo
 * Prof. John Stix, Dept. Earth and Planetary Sciences, McGill University, Montreal
 * James D.L. White, University of Otago
 * Theodore C. Chang
 * Robert B. Smith, Yellowstone Volcano Observatory, University of Utah
 * Prof Stephen McNutt, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Geophysical Institute
 * Prof Toshitsugu Fujii, University of Tokyo
 * Prof Jocelyn McPhie, Earth Sciences and CODES, University of Tasmania
 * Prof Anita Grunder, Department of Geosciences, Oregon State University
 * R.W. Johnson, Australia
 * Intraplate Volcanism: In Eastern Australia And New Zealand by R. W. Johnson, Cambridge University Press, 444 pp, 2009, isbn 9780521123228
 * G.B. Escher, Netherlands, IAVCEI 1948-1954 - Berend George Escher (1885−1967)
 * A. Rittman, Switzerland/Italy, IAVCEI 1954-1963
 * de:Alfred Rittmann,
 * Peter Langdon Ward, Sigurdsson, H., W. Jason Morgan, Gillian Foulger, Don L. Anderson, Michael Rampino
 * Scientists and Librarians: Jack Sepkoski and David M. Raup, Jimmy Wales, Gerta Keller, Nils-Axel Mörner,
 * Scientists and Librarians: Jack Sepkoski and David M. Raup, Jimmy Wales, Gerta Keller, Nils-Axel Mörner,

Biographies (economy)

 * Joseph E. Stiglitz (NP 2001)
 * Charles L. Evans (Fed Chicago)
 * Martin Feldstein (Harvard)
 * Thomas M. Hoenig (Fed Kansas City)

Biographies (catholicism)

 * Josyp Terelja, John Leary (BLP),
 * Pope Benedict XVI (BLP), Vassula Ryden (BLP), Veronica Lueken, Pope John Paul II, Mother Teresa, Pio of Pietrelcina

Geology experts

 * User:Vsmith was in mining (geology of porphyry copper deposits - yeah, worked for a mining company for a while in the 70s)
 * User:Woodwalker and User:Mikenorton do structure/tectonics
 * Sedimentology, User:Awickert
 * User:MaxWyss geophysics International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, International Association of Seismology and Physics of the Earth's Interior (IASPEI), sub-commission for earthquake prediction
 * User:Tillman semi-retired mineral exploration geologist based in Arizona and New Mexico
 * Geology of the Himalayas, User:Moumine (Dèzes, Pierre; Uni Basel)
 * Izu-Bonin-Mariana Arc, User:Zyzzy2 (R. Stern, University of Texas at Dallas)
 * Rio Grande rift, User:Rasteraster (prof. of geophysics living in New Mexico)
 * User:Rygel,_M.C. (Sedimentary Geology, State University of New York, College at Potsdam)
 * User:Schellat, Werner Schellmann is a retired German geoscientist who was active in laterite research for many decades.
 * User:Jpvandijk, van Dijk, Janpieter ??? - TaskForceMajella (Petroleum)
 * User:RockMagnetist, User:QFL247
 * User:Foulger, Gillian Foulger ???
 * User:Jcwf, crystalography

The Wilson Cycle
The Wilson Cycle describes the closing and opening of an ocean along the same plate boundary. For example, the Iapetus Ocean between the Norwegian margin of Baltica and the Greenland margin of Laurentia closed by subduction and collision around 425 million years ago. This led to the formation of the Caledonide mountains and the high-pressure rocks now exposed in western Norway. Extension caused break-up of the new continent and the formation of the North Atlantic Ocean from around 54 million years ago. In this project we investigate the dynamics of the different stages of a Wilson Cycle: closure of an ocean by subduction, the end of convergence by continental collision, and subsequent rifting.




 * Geodynamics group at the Geological Survey of Norway, Susanne Buiter, Trond Torsvik

Volcanic Explosivity Index
Reference March, 2010:

The Holocene epoch begins 11.700 ka (9650 BC, Tongariro and Jun 11, 2009, Sarychev Peak)


 * Caldera forming eruptions, of large, but unknown magnitudes: 13
 * Plinian eruptions, of large, but unknown magnitudes: 58
 * VEI 4, since Katla, 1500: 176 (one all 2.9 years)
 * VEI 4, Holocene: 420 (one all 28 years)
 * VEI 5, Holocene: 166 (one all 70 years)
 * VEI 6, Holocene: 51 (one all 230 years)
 * VEI 7, Holocene: 5 (+2 suspected, one all 1,950 years)
 * VEI 8, Holocene: 0

A total of 42 eruptions of VEI–8 magnitude or above, are known from the past 36 million years (one all 860 ka).


 * Abstract; Pyle, David M. and Oppenheimer, Clive (2004)

A compilation and analysis of the size and frequency of the largest known explosive eruptions on Earth are presented. The largest explosive events are defined to be those eruptions yielding greater than 1E15 kg of products (>150 times the mass of the 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinatubo). This includes all known eruptions with a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 8. A total of 47 such events, ranging in age from Ordovician to Pleistocene, are identified, of which 42 eruptions are known from the past 36 Ma. A logarithmic magnitude scale of eruption size is applied, based on erupted mass, to these events. On this scale, 46 eruptions >1E15 kg are defined to be of magnitude M8. There is one M9 event known so far, the Fish Canyon Tuff, with an erupted mass of >1E16 kg and a magnitude of 9.2. Analysis of this dataset indicates that eruptions of size M8 and larger have occurred with a minimum frequency of 1.4 events/Ma in two pulses over the past 36 Ma. On the basis of the activity during the past 13.5 Ma, there is at least a 75% probability of a M8 eruption (>1E15 kg) occurring within the next 1 Ma. There is a 1% chance of an eruption of this scale in the next 460–7,200 years. While the effect of any individual M8 or larger eruption is considerable, the time-averaged impact (i.e., erupted mass×frequency) of the very largest eruptions is small, due to their rarity. The long-term, time-averaged erupted mass flux from magnitude 8 and 9 eruptions is ~10–100 times less than for M7 eruptions; the time-averaged mass eruption rate from M7 eruptions is 9,500 kg s–1, whereas for M8 and M9 eruptions it is ~70–1,000 kg s–1. Comparison of the energy release by volcanic eruptions with that due to asteroid impacts suggests that on timescales of <100,000 years, explosive volcanic eruptions are considerably more frequent than impacts of similar energy yield. This has important implications for understanding the risk of extreme events.

Cripple Creek volcanic area

Thirtynine Mile volcanic area

Reference 1994
References
 * The VEI has some similarities to the Richter magnitude scale used to measure earthquakes. It has a simple numerical index of increasing magnitude of explosivity, with each interval representing an increase of about a factor of 10 in the volume of erupted tephra.
 * There are no known explosive events with a VEI larger than 8.
 * Volcanologists developed the VEI in order to help estimate the climatic impact of volcanic eruptions. They soon learned, however, that the amount of sulfur dioxide gas injected high into the atmosphere (which is not necessarily related to the size of an eruption) was a critical factor in determining the climatic impact of volcanic eruptions. Today, the VEI is primarily used to estimate the relative size of an explosive eruption.
 * Large explosive eruptions occur much less frequently than small ones. Through 1994, the record of volcanic eruptions in the past 10,000 years maintained by the Global Volcanism Program of the Smithsonian Institution shows that there have been 4 eruptions with a VEI of 7, 39 of VEI 6, 84 of VEI 5, 278 of VEI 4, 868 of VEI 3, and 3,477 explosive eruptions of VEI 2.
 * Newhall, C.G., and Self, S., 1982, The volcanic explosivity index (VEI): An estimate of explosive magnitude for historical volcanism, Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 87, p. 1231-1238.
 * Simkin, Tom, and Siebert, Lee, 1994, Volcanoes of the World -- A regional directory, gazetteer, and chronology of Volcanism during the last 10,000 years: Tuscon, Geoscience Press, Inc., p. 349

Volcanic dimming
http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/grad/mloapt.html
 * Jun 11, 2009, Sarychev Peak (?), Kuril Islands, 48°5'30"N, 153°12'0"E, 4 E8 tephra, VEI 4
 * Apr 2, 1991, Mount Pinatubo, Philipines, 15°8'0"N, 120°21'0"E, 1.1 ±0.5 E10 tephra, VEI 6
 * Mar 28, 1982, El Chichón, Mexico, 17°21'36"N, 93°13'40"W, 2.3 E9 tephra, VEI 5
 * Oct 10, 1974, Fuego, Guatemala, 14°28'22"N, 90°52'49"W, 4 E8 tephra, VEI 4
 * Feb 18, 1963, Agung, Bali, 8°20'30"S, 115°30'30"E, 1 E8 lava, more than 1 E9 tephra, VEI 5
 * ATMOSPHERIC TRANSMISSION OF DIRECT SOLAR RADIATION AT MAUNA LOA, HAWAII