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Main maritime drug routes
Maritime drug routes refer to pathways by which illicit drugs are transported across borders via maritime means. Smuggling and trafficking of illicit goods by sea is a global problem in today’s interconnected world. Transnational maritime crime, such as drug smuggling, is becoming increasingly professionalized and widespread, occurring in all regions of the world to the detriment of human security, sustainable development, and international peace. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), there were 296 million estimated drug users aged 15-64 of drugs globally in 2021. The use of drugs is an increasing problem, with the number of drug users growing by an estimated 23 per cent from 2011 to 2021. The demand for illegal drugs is rising, resulting in more drugs being transported around the world. The sea is advantageous for the transportation of illicit drugs because it connects regions without hard borders and checkpoint, and exchanges can also take place outside the jurisdictional territories of states. International statistic typically focus on four groups of illicit drugs: cocaine, opioids, cannabis, and amphetamines. These will also be the examined groups of illicit drugs in this article. Smuggling drugs by sea is the oldest of the three main methods of drug smuggling, originating with the smuggling of opium in merchant cargoes and baggage towards China. Since then, trafficking of illicit goods via maritime routes has grown in size, scope, and professionalization. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the main maritime routes of drug smuggling, the methods used in these kinds of practices, and the impact this type of blue crime has on the affected states.

Historical overview
Maritime drug smuggling is one of the top three methods used by criminal networks to smuggle drugs across borders, and it is also one of the oldest. One of the first known drug smuggling networks involved Chinese immigrants smuggling opium among legal goods and commercial luggage. Since then, maritime drug trafficking has only grown in size, scope and sophistication, particularly since the 1990s. Since the mid-1980s, there has been rapid advancement in the transportation and distribution networks of drug traffickers, which is why this historical review focus on this period. From the 1980s into the 1990s, air transportation was the primary method used to smuggle illicit drugs. However, as controls on this method became more sophisticated and it became more difficult for drug traffickers to use this method without being seized, the focus shifted to new, less visible methods. Therefore, in the mid-1990s, there was a shift towards more frequent use of maritime methods such as cargo ships, fishing boats, motorboats, and narcosubmarines. The focus in the 1990s was on developing the fastest methods to smuggle drugs from land to land, which was the main reason for initially using aircraft. During this period, yachts and sailboats were commonly used to transport larger quantities of illegal drugs over long distances. The use of smaller but faster boats to transport drugs necessitated the quick development of technical capacities to hide these goods from regulatory control. Since then, the development of vessels and methods has evolved towards using larger vessels such as cargo ships, as well as less visible methods such as narcosubmarines, which will be elaborated upon in the section on methods and techniques.

Main maritime drug routes worldwide
To get insight into where and to which countries these four groups of drugs are transported, an overview of the supply and demand of the four groups is presented first. According to the UNODC, the transit of cannabis, whose production is widespread in all regions worldwide, is typically intra-regional. Therefore, the subsections prioritize only the main maritime routes of cocaine, opioids, and amphetamines where there are still some dominant producer countries. In relation to cocaine, the three largest supply and production countries are Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia. The regions with the highest estimated demand and consumption of cocaine are South America (around 30 percent), the US (around 22 percent), and Europe (around 24 percent). The remaining regions together consume approximately the same amount as Europe, at 24 percent. Therefore, in terms of maritime transportation, cocaine typically has to be transported from South America to the US and Europe.

In terms of illicit opioids production, the largest estimated suppliers are Afghanistan and Myanmar. However, the future distribution is uncertain due to the Taliban's drug ban in 2022. According to the UNODC, this ban has replaced Afghanistan as the future dominant production of opium to Myanmar, where political, social, and economic instability following the 2021 coup caused more farmers to grow poppies. Like the other three groups of drugs, opioids are consumed globally, but the proportion of opioid users is particularly high in Asia. The UNODC estimated that there were around 35.77 million opioid users in Asia in 2020. North America, particularly the US, also has one of the highest proportions of opioid consumers.

In relation to the production, demand, and thus transportation of illegal cannabis, this substance is more complicated than the other three groups of drugs due to the increasing legalizing in many countries. The two countries that produce the most medical cannabis are the US and Canada. According to the UNODC 2022 WDR, unlike many other drugs, the cultivation, consumption and trafficking of cannabis primarily occur within the same region. This significantly affects the routes of illicit trafficking of this group of drugs, which therefore remain highly local. Most regions reported intra-regional cannabis trafficking to the WDR in 2022. However, there were also exceptions such as Oceania and East and South Asia, where the typical countries of origin, departure, and transit during the period 2016-2020 were the US, the Netherlands and Canada.

In terms of production, demand, and trafficking of amphetamine s, the majority of trafficking in this group of drugs occurs intra-regionally, particularly in East and Southeast Asia and North America, which are also among the most important departure or transit countries for this type of group. This group of drugs includes substances with a stimulant effect on the central nervous system, such as amphetamines, methamphetamines, fentanyl, and "ecstasy" type drugs. According to the UNODC, the majority of seizures of this group of drugs in 2020 took place in North America and East and South-East Asia. Regarding demand for this type of drug, the UNODC estimates that consumption is highest in North America, where 3.9 percent of the population is estimated to use amphetamines, equating to 12.5 million, followed by Australia and New Zealand with 1.3 percent. East and Southeast Asia also have relatively high usage of this drug group compared to other regions, with lower levels reported in Africa and other parts of Asia. The UNODC mentions in their 2022 report that China's importance in methamphetamine shipments has decreased since 2017 following a crackdown on the manufacture and trafficking of this type of drug. On the other hand, countries in Europe and Central Asia play the most significant role in amphetamine production and trafficking.

Maritime smuggling of cocaine
Every year, the UNODC reports the main cocaine trafficking routes through the WDR. These routes typically align with commercial shipping routes, as these are one of the main methods of interstate cocaine smuggling. As shown in the figure above, the main cocaine production centers are Colombia, Bolivia and Peru, which still supply the majority of the world's cocaine consumption. For maritime smuggling of cocaine destined for the US, the cartels commonly utilize transit countries, typically Mexico or the Caribbean. Conversely, cocaine intended for Europe, Africa, and Asia via maritime means usually passes through Brazil, a key transit country on this route. The route to North American countries, which typically involves Caribbean island states and/or Mexico as transit countries, is depicted by the blue arrows in the image to the right.

On the maritime route to Europe, West African countries play a significant role as transit destinations. Countries such as Benin, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria, and Senegal being particularly popular transit stations for substances destined for the European market.

Spain and Morocco serve as key transit- and destination country in Europe, with significant flows to France, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, and the UK. Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium are major destinations for cocaine, with notable seizures reported in 2023 alone: 44 tons in Germany, 59 tons in the Netherlands, and 116 tons in Belgium. The ports of Antwerp, Rotterdam, and Hamburg serve as the main gateways to Europe for illegal drug imports. To counteract the increasing amount of cocaine smuggling in Western European ports, the European Port Alliance was established in January 2024.

The route destined for Europe typically involves transit through Brazil towards West African coastal states and then onward to Spain or the Netherlands. This route is depicted by the yellow arrows on the figure shown above.

Maritime smuggling of opioids
As depicted in the preceding paragraph and image, most opioids and heroin are produced in Afghanistan, Mexico, and Myanmar. Similar to the maritime smuggling of cocaine, the UNODC reported in 2022 on the main opiate trafficking flows in the period from 2016 to 2020. This revealed that the majority of opioid trafficking to the US originates in Mexico. Additionally, the majority of opioids and heroin in Europe come via "the Baltic route", which is one of the world's main trafficking routes for heroin and morphine. This route originates from Afghanistan passing through the Islamic Republic of Iran to Turkey, and then through the Balkans to Western and Central Europe. Although the Balkan route is likely to remain the main route for heroin trafficking to the EU, there are signs of an increase in the diversity of routes and modes of transportation being used. Turkey is becoming a very important country for the transportation of heroin and opioids with the EU, with the port of Istanbul holding particular importance.

From Turkey to European countries, there are typically three branches of the Balkan route:


 * 1) The southern route through Greece, Albania, and Italy, mostly utilizing ferry transportation.
 * 2) The central route through Bulgaria, Macedonia, Serbia, and Montenegro, leading to either Italy or Austria.
 * 3) The northern route from Bulgaria to Hungary, Austria, Poland, Czech Republic, or Germany.

As both the northern and central routes are primarily involve land transportation, and not maritime, unlike the southern route, we in the following focus exclusively on the southern route.

In recent years, shipments of opioids from ports in Iran and Pakistan, located on the Makran coast, have attracted the attention of international anti-drug trafficking actors. Typically, illicit drugs leave these ports by being concealed in commercial containers hidden among legal goods on cargo ships or local vessels. This route is also used to transport heroin to countries in the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa, which seems to be growing. However, maritime smuggling of heroin is having a destabilizing effect in East Africa, making ports more insecure than before, and profits from the drug trade reportedly funding armed groups in the region. Some shipments are also sent all the way to South Africa primarily by sea before reaching Europe. Another route on the southern route involves smuggle the drugs from the Makran coast directly to Europe via the Arabian Peninsula.

North America, particularly the US, stands out as a major consumer of opioids and heroin, necessitating substantial transportation effort to meet demand. Typically, the supply to the US comes from Mexico. Additionally, the majority of these drugs are transported to Oceania from Myanmar and Southeast Asia.

Maritime smuggling of methamphetamine
As shown in the about picture, which provides an overview of the main producing countries for different groups of drugs, the Golden Triangle region of Southeast Asia – encompassing Myanmar, Thailand, and Laos – is becoming a major source of both heroin and methamphetamine production. Since 2015, there has also been a significant increase in the production of synthetic drugs in this region, particularly methamphetamine and crystal meth. Methamphetamine is a cheap and addictive drug that is becoming increasingly popular in Asia and Oceania. Its production in Southeast Asia is concentrated in Myanmar, from where the drugs are smuggled across the Thai and Laotian borders aimed further transportation. Smugglers utilize Southeast Asia’s extensive network of commercial sea routes and ports to reach the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia, as well as more distant destinations such as Australia, New Zealand, and island states in the South Pacific.

Methods and techniques
The types of vessels utilized to transport illegal drugs globally vary in both size and speed, ranging from traditional fishing boats and trawlers to innovative, purpose-built vessels. Among these, three main types stand out: submarines, containers, and cargo ships. Drug trafficking organizations continually evolve their methods, techniques, and strategies for smuggling by sea, with a primary focus on improving camouflage and speed.

Drug smugglers often base their strategies on logistical knowledge of port security and the vulnerabilities of the respective ports. They exploit the mobility of shipping containers and target busy ports, which are more vulnerable to control efforts. This can slow down the speed of delivery of legal goods, thus impacting the legal trade economy. Throughout history, drug traffickers have employed various methods and camouflage strategies to smuggle drugs across boarders. Typically, illicit drugs are concealed amid legal goods to provide cover for the smuggling operation.

Typical use of vessels
List of often used vessels for drug smuggling:


 * Cargo ships
 * Commercial containers
 * Narco-submarine
 * Go-fast boats
 * Ferries
 * Fishing vessels

One important type of vessel used for this type of criminal practice is the drug submarine. As methods for transporting illegal drugs from point A to point B have evolved to become more innovative and sophisticated, the use of narco-submarines has increased. Narco-submarine refers to custom made vessels which are invented, built, and used to transport illicit drugs. When different techniques and new types of vessels are developed, they typically involve a trade-off between minimizing the seizure of goods and speed of delivery. At the turn of the millennium, go-fast boats were among the most commonly used vessels for this type of blue crime because they could deliver goods at high speed. However, they were also more vulnerable to interception as they relied on frequent refueling. One solution to this was the development and establishment of refueling stations on the high seas, minimizing contact with coast guards.

Another key vessels utilized for these crimes is cargo ships, which is why the shipping industry is increasingly burdened by this type of blue crime. Commercial cargo has become a more attractive method for smugglers, possibly due to the lack of container ship control in many major ports, where efficiency in trade is prioritized. Europol reported in March 2023 that only 2-10% of all containers passing through EU ports are inspected, making it extremely difficult to seize illegal substances. Consequently, more shipping companies are investing resources to combat illicit goods on their ships, seeking to enhance container monitoring and screening, particularly using systems that detect temperature changes. Typically, it is the staff on these cargo ships who are responsible for checking and reporting irregularities caused by drug smuggling, which can also create legal vulnerability.

The impact of drugs routes on human security and political stability
As evident from the article thus far, the drug trade comprises multiple links, all of which are adversely affected by this type of blue crime. The impact extends to countries involved drug production, security measures at ports in sending-, transit-, and destination countries, challenges encountered along the actual route at the high seas, and notably, the security and stability of fragile states often utilized as intermediaries before the drugs reach Europe, Oceania, or North America. In this section, we will initially examine how this type of crime impacts the security and political situation of the so-called narco-states followed by an exploration on the effect on transit countries security.

Narco-state s is a term used to describe states that have been infiltrated and controlled by corrupt drug cartels, resulting in a deterioration of the rule of law in the country and the governments autonomy. These states are unable to effectively govern, leading to widespread lawlessness and insecurity for their citizens. The term implies that criminal organizations victimize states that would otherwise have stable institutions capable of ensuring the safety and well-being of their citizens. Based on data provided by the UNODC, countries such as Colombia, Bolivia, Peru, Afghanistan, Mexico, and Myanmar can be considered narco-states.

In Afghanistan, the opium economy is deeply entrenched, making it a unique case of an advanced narco-state where the drug trade is intricately woven into the country's social and economic fabric. Similarly, Mexico grapples with the influence of established narco-cartels and criminal organizations, resulting in a crisis marked by widespread kidnappings, violence, and targeted killings. The country has seen over 30,000 annual deaths since 2018, indicating the severity of the situation. As well as Mexico, Colombia also faces a high crime rate due to being a center for production and trafficking of cocaine. These examples underscore the far-reaching implications of narco-states on the rule of law and the safety of civilian populations.

Investigating transit countries along major maritime drug routes from Central America to Europe is particular important, as these countries are typically already facing significant challenges. Several West African states are threatened by the rise of powerful transnational organized crime networks, specifically since West Africa is an ideal geographical choice for drug trafficking and smuggling. Guinea-Bissau, for example, with its numerous uninhabited islands, makes it difficult to detect drug smuggling activities. Additionally, many West African countries are grappling with political instability, including civil wars and coups, further exacerbating their vulnerability to organized crime networks. Several reports and articles have emphasized the impact of the combination of geographical, political, and social factors in creating an environment conducive to drug smuggling in countries such as Mali and Niger. These countries have emerged as central hubs for international drug smugglers due to their strategic location and unstable political landscapes. The convergence of these factors underscores the significant challenges faced by transit countries along major drug trafficking routes and the urgent need for international cooperation and support to address these issues.

Finally, the security of destination countries is also significantly impacted by drug trafficking. The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) and Europol reported in their 2024 publication "EU Drug Markets: In-depth analysis" that some EU Member States are experiencing unprecedented levels of drug market-related violence and that they seem to be concentrated in distribution hubs. The violence includes homicides, torture, and kidnappings, predominantly occurring between rival criminal networks, although civilians are also among the victims of these crimes. Furthermore, the report highlights the negative impact of drug trafficking on corruption levels, which can undermine the integrity of political and legal institutions, rendering them more vulnerable to criminal influence. Consequently, EMCDDA and Europol conclude that the increasing drug trafficking affecting many European ports poses a significant threat to society as a whole, and increases public insecurity.

The practical impact of security on the high seas remains under-researched. However, it is intriguing to explore how the safety of various maritime personnel, such as fishermen and workers on container ships, is influenced by the growing trend of employing maritime routes for the transportations of illegal drugs.

(Lack of) key responses by the UNODC and the UNCLOS
The United Nations (UN) is attempting to tackle the security problem inherent in the consumption and transportation of illegal drugs worldwide. The UN has outsourced the responsibility of handling drug control and prevention to the UNODC to enhance the UN’s efficacy and expertise in combating drug-related crime, international terrorism, and crime reduction. Recognizing the escalating issue, the General Assembly has acknowledged the necessity for capacity-building assistance to combat drug trafficking.

The primary task of the UNODC is to equip member states with knowledge on the subject, offer legal support to deal with maritime crime, and facilitate capacity-building. Annually, the UNODC publishes the World Drug Report (WDR), the sole global review by the UN on drug consumption, seizures, trafficking, and production of illicit drugs available in the field. The WDR bases their data on annually reported questionnaires completed by their member states. However, the reliability of this data is often questioned due to inconsistencies. There may be some significant data gaps in the WDR due to underreporting and inadequate documentation, necessitating the UNODC to rely on expert estimates. Furthermore, the UNODC’s capacity is limited, resulting in limited coverage of regions like Africa, Asia, and Oceania in their reports. Another key agency to involved in addressing the escalating issue of drug trafficking is the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). UNCLOS aims to delineate the rights and responsibilities of nations concerning the utilization of the world’s oceans, thereby establishing guidelines for international shipping and the exploitation of marine resources .Under UNCLOS, the Flag State holds primary jurisdiction in fighting drug smuggling on boarding vessels that fall under the jurisdiction of the respective Flag State. Thus, states possess the authority to intervene if a boat is suspected of drug possession, depending upon the maritime zone in which the vessel is located, which specific framework will not be elaborated here. However, this specific legal framework will not be detailed here. Nevertheless, it is important to examine what powers states wield when suspecting vessels beyond their zones and/or on the high seas. In this regard, the UNCLOS advocates for international cooperation, yet the specifics of such cooperation and its operationalization are not clearly articulated.