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The Basics of Social Stigma
Stigma in sociology is defined by Goffman as “the gap between what a person ought to be (defined as virtual social identity) and what a person actually is (defined as actual social identity).” (pg 142) As a sociological concept, stigma was initially analyzed by Erving Goffman who wrote a book on the topic entitled Stigma; notes on the management of spoiled identity. When sociologists have studied stigma in the past (particularly Goffman) they have focused primarily on the interaction between those with stigmas and those without. It is likely for that reason that stigma is often associated with ethnomethodology (the study of how people in society act in situations using learned and non learned behaviors and thoughts.). Specific stigmas range from being a minority, to having a handicap, or disorder.

This interaction in society was explained by use of Goffman’s dramaturgical sense of self (which was a concept based off of Harold Blumer’s concept of dramaturgy). This essentially stated that each person is an actor trying to present a specific sense of self to everyone else in the world who makes up the audience. Goffman used this concept to explain how those actors with stigma react around their audience, and how actors without stigma react around an audience of stigmatized people.

Categories of Stigma
There are three types of stigmas according to Goffman: “physical deformities”, “blemishes of character”, and “tribal” stigma. Physical deformities relate to anything abnormal about a persons body whether it be a birth defect or a mutilation. Blemishes of character are typically associated with personality disorders or with those who act inappropriately as deemed by society. Tribal stigma deals with being different from the societal norm in race, creed, or ethnicity.

Two other categories that stigmas are put into are: discredited stigmas and discreditable stigmas. Discredited stigmas are those which are obvious or known to the general public, usually these include something physically visible. Goffman notes that the primary concern for people with a discredited stigma is the fact that they have to interact with those who do not have a stigma and that those without the stigma will recognize and act differently towards those they know face a stigma. .

Categories II
Discreditable stigmas are those which are not obvious and the general public cannot recognize immediately, usually a person with a discreditable stigma will attempt to hide their particular stigma from others. Such stigmas are typically personality traits or disorders but can be physical in nature. The problem for those with this type of stigma, according to Goffman, is that the person with the hidden stigma will try to keep it a secret. This is also known as “internalized stigma.” (pg 9)

Studying Stigma
There are seven qualities that allow for stigma to be recognized. These qualities are: ‘visibility’, ‘severity’, ‘contagiousness’, ‘culpability’, ‘difference’, ‘incompetence’, and ‘deviance’. Visibility is defined as, “being visually notable.” Severity is defined as, “being fatal or debilitating.” Contagiousness is defined as, “being, or being perceived as, contagious.” Culpability is defined as “Implying blame or delict.” Difference is defined as, “being rare in particular contexts.” Incompetence is defined as, “reflecting frailty, negating social and interactional competence.” And deviance is defined as “attaching to an ‘alternative lifestyle.’” (pg 7)

Management of stigma has also been studied extensively. The Exchange theory is one way the “actors” look to deal with their stigma. The actors will look for situations that work best with their stigma, offering up one situation for a better one. ref name="GramlingForsyth">Gramling, Rober; Forsyth, Craig J., "Exploiting Stigma." Sociological Forum 2, 1987, 401-415. Some with stigmas can lead normal lives without letting the stigma affect them, in this sense the actors have believed their own performance so much that they convinced their audience of the performance. The opposite of this can also be true if the person with the stigma is not capable of pretending to be ‘normal.’ It has also been suggested that there are those who will intentionally try to obtain a stigma for one reason or another. This is considered an exploitation of stigma.

Stigmas can be exploited by both the ‘audience’ and the ‘actor.’ Certain forms of this exploitation have been identified and put into categories. ‘Eliciting Special Consideration’ is one such exploitation. With this exploitation, the person with the stigma either acts as if they cannot fit into society, or acts as though they cannot fit into society, and thus they must be given “special consideration.” ‘Evoking Selected Aspects of a Stereotype’ is another such exploitation in which an individual tries to take the positive aspects of a stereotype. ‘Avoiding a More Serious Stigma’ is a third type of exploitation in which an individual with stigma or multiple stigmas will try to reveal only a lesser stigma to the ‘audience,” thereby distracting from “a more serious stigma.” Some with stigmas will try to disassociate themselves with others who share their stigma because associating themselves with that group is not beneficial; this exploitation is called Avoiding Membership. Oppositely, some will try to Gain Membership. Two other forms of exploitation are Avoiding Interaction, which is merely avoiding interaction with the general public by being different, and Submissive Manipulation, in which someone may take pity on or help someone with a stigma because they feel bad. (pg 10)

Stigma in Sociology
The sociologist Manzo says that Stigma as a social concept has become one of the most used concepts in sociology. However he also states that it is one of the most under-defined concepts in sociology. Between 1995 and 2001 there were 15 general categories discussed as examples of social stigma in scholarly journals, they are as followed: AIDS or HIV infection, homosexuality and bisexuality, mental illness, being overweight and/or having eating disorders, prostitution, tuberculosis, epilepsy, having a gay or lesbian parent(s), imprisonment, incontinence, race, disability, alcoholism, brain injury, and other STD’s. (pg 5)

Who has Stigma and what is it like
According to Ritzer’s brief summary of Goffman’s book, Goffman shows how at one point or another, every person will be part of a stigma in their life. Some argue, such as Manzo, that “any condition, conduct, or membership can be stigmatizing” as long as it is “discrediting.” (pg 5). The feeling of living with a stigma has been noted by feelings of “isolation”, “embarrassment”, and “uneasiness” (pg 15).

NOTE: SEE ALSO Social stigma