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Description
The hound’s tongue fern is epiphytic and terrestrial on surfaces like rocks and has bright, glossy green leaves (New Zealand Plant Conservation Network, 2023). Its rhizomes are long-creeping and can be 3-11 millimeters in diameter with scales that shed over time leaving scars, as well as succulent flesh that grows brownish black over time (Brownsey et al. 2021). The stipes, or the stalks of the leaves, can be 10-350 millimeters long and are of similar color. Fronds are usually closely and regularly lobed, glossy green and paler on the underside with distinct venation (Brownsey et al. 2021). They can be in pairs of 1-10 and appear to be 45-750 mm long and 10-30 mm wide, oblong, and ending in a point (Brownsey et al. 2021). Only one type of root is grown, and it lacks lateral or clasping roots (Brownsey et al. 2021). Pale spores and round, prominent, orange, brown sori are lined on either side of costa and cause a bulge on the upper side of the leaf as well (NZPCN, 2023). Distinguishing features for this plant include the glossy, wide laminae, thick rhizomes, and variation in the fronds (Brownsey et al. 2021).

Natural global range
Hound’s tongue is indigenous to New Zealand, but not endemic as it is also found in Australia and other surrounding islands (NZPCN, 2023). It is found on both the North and South Islands in coastal to mountainous areas and prefers open, drier areas (NZPCN, 2023). It grows from altitudes 0-1050 meters, from coastal lowlands to mountains in the Ruahine Range (Brownsey et al. 2021). It can be found on islands including the Kermadec and Antipodes islands and in Australia it can be found from Queensland to Tasmania (Brownsey et al. 2021).

New Zealand range
Hound’s tongue is abundant on both the North and South Islands of New Zealand from the beaches to the montane and pine forests (NZPCN, 2023). It can also be found in scrub and scoria, which is volcanic rock, and open areas where sunlight is not blocked by a canopy (Brownsey et al. 2021).

Habitat
The hound’s tongue fern prefers open areas that are slightly drier as it is more drought tolerant than other ferns (NZPCN, 2023). It grows along rocks, fallen trees, and branches; surfaces its rhizomes will thrive on because they can crawl over them (Brownsey et al. 2021).

Life cycle and phenology
Hound’s tongue is a classic example of the two-part fern life cycle. It begins as spores dispersed to new habitats where they can then grow into gametophytes if moist enough (Perrie, 2021). Then, within the gametophyte through a film of water, the sperm cells are able to travel to and fertilize the egg cell because a gametophyte contains both sex organs for reproduction (Brownsey, 2007). If successfully fertilized, a sporophyte will grow, which is what we know as a fern plant. This turns into a fertile fern that will grow sori on its leaves to produce and disperse more spores (Perrie, 2021). The sporangia, spots where spores are produced and released, on the hound’s tongue are big, round, and orange and sink into the underside of the leaf so that there are visible bumps on either side of the leaf (Perrie, 2021). In general, spores are ready to be dispersed by the end of summer; their lifespan varies greatly and is impacted by the environment (Lopez-Pozo et al. 2019). Since these ferns can survive drier conditions, their spores may last longer than others.

Diet and foraging
Since these ferns are found throughout New Zealand, they can live in a variety of soil conditions. They are considered hardy, which implies that they can survive in soil with less nutrients such as sandy soil as well as varying degrees of sun exposure (Landcare Research, 2023). As discussed before, they can also survive in drier conditions which allows them to spread to higher altitudes (Brownsey et al. 2021).

Predators, parasites and diseases
Hound’s tongue is available as forage to New Zealand herbivores such as deer, rabbits, and rodents that eat the leaves (Caughley, 1989). There is also the hound’s tongue fern whitefly, Trialeurodes, which is waiting to be described formally, but has only been found on this plant (Martin, 2017). It feeds off of the plant sugars and lays rings of eggs on the underside of the plant (Martin, 2017).

Cultural Information
The Māori name for this fern is kōwaowao, which in English means to overgrow or suffocate (Moorfield, 2023). It also refers to low vegetation (Perrie, 2021).