User:ClaireBardin/sandbox

Human impact
Increasing human populations have resulted in increased human impact on ecosystems. Human activities has resulted in an increased extinction rate of species which has caused a major decrease in biological diversity of plants and animals in our environment. These impacts include increased pressure from fisheries including reef degradation and overfishing as well as pressure from the tourism industry which has increased over the past few years. The deterioration of coral reefs is mainly linked to human activities – 88% of reefs are threatened through various reasons as listed above, including excessive amounts of CO2 (carbon dioxide) emissions. Oceans absorb approximately 1/3 of the CO2 produced by humans, which has detrimental effects on the marine environment. The increasing levels of CO2 in oceans change the seawater chemistry by decreasing the pH, which is known as ocean acidification. Oil spills also impact marine environments, contributing to marine pollution as a result of human activity. The effects of oil on marine fish have been studied following major spills in the United States.

Shipping is a major vector for the introduction of exotic marine species, some of which can become overabundant and transform ecosystems. Collisions with ships can also be fatal for whales and can impact on the viability of whole populations, including the right whale population off the east coast of the United States.

Overfishing
Overfishing is one of main causes of the decrease in the ocean’s wildlife population over the past years. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation reported that the percentage of the world's fish stocks that are at biologically sustainable levels have decreased from 90% in 1974 to 65.8% in 2017. The overfishing of these large fisheries destroys the marine environment and threatens the livelihood of billions who depend on fish as protein or as a source of income for catching and selling.

According to the World Wildlife Fund, illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing is a major factor in overfishing. Illegal fishing is estimated to account for up to 30% of the catch for some high value species, and the industry is estimated to be worth $36 billion per year.

Overabundance
Overabundance can occur when the population of a certain species cannot be controlled naturally or by human intervention. The domination of one species can create an imbalance in an ecosystem, which can lead to the demise of other species and of the habitat. Overabundance occurs predominately among invasive species.

Introduced species
The international shipping trade has led to the establishment of many marine species beyond their native ranges. Some of these can have adverse consequences, such as the North pacific seastar which was introduced to Tasmania, Australia. Vectors for the translocation of organisms include hull biofouling, the dumping of ballast water and dumping of water from marine aquaria. A tank of ballast water is estimated to contain around 3,000 non-native species. Once established, it is difficult to eradicate an exotic organism from an ecosystem.

The San Francisco Bay is one of the places in the world that is the most impacted by foreign and invasive species. According to the Baykeeper organization, 97 percent of the organisms in the San Francisco Bay have been compromised by the 240 invasive species that have been brought into the ecosystem. Invasive species in the bay such as the Asian clam have changed the food web of the ecosystem by depleting populations of native species such as plankton. The Asian clam clogs pipes and obstructs the flow of water in electrical generating facilities. Their presence in the San Francisco Bay has cost the United States an estimated one billion dollars in damages.

Marine and Coastal Conflicts
A new theory of marine and coastal conflict by Professor Alexander has two main arguments; the first being increased competition results from changing social and ecological environments and the second that political and social factors exacerbate this competition. Changing social-ecological environments includes “increasing global population; the need for security of supply; the economic imperative for growth; historical institutional failure in managing the ocean and coastal environment; and a changing marine environment”. And the political and social factors being the “taking/altering what is perceived to be ours; unfair treatment; threats to wellbeing; and continuing poor governance/management”. When these changes in the marine environment and political and social factors align and accumulate, conflict arises.

Alexander argues that healthy competition can be a good thing by providing motivation, cultivate commitment and creativity. However, competition is pushed into conflict when exacerbating factors apply extra pressure to the situation. Examples of exacerbating factors include the perception of others restricting resource use, unfair resource distribution and use, powerlessness, when there are perceived threats to wellbeing, and when there is disagreement about resource management”. Alexander argues that conflict arises under the influence of human-induced environmental change that causes a scarcity of resources. Multiple case studies show that competition will not result in conflict unless there is “some sort of scarcity, scarcity of fish, scarcity of a view, scarcity of space”. Alexander’s final argument in her theory is that the process of morphing competition to conflict only occurs “under certain political, social, and cultural conditions”.

Applying Alexander’s theory to Seadrift, Texas, feelings of unfairness and threats to well-being ultimately lead to conflict between Vietnamese refugees and American fishermen. Alexander’s theory applies to Seadrift due to Vietnamese refugees changing the social conditions and the ecological and economic conditions surrounding crabbing in the Gulf of Mexico. The Americans perceived the Vietnamese to be fishing 24 hours per day and ignoring the unwritten fishing laws. Additionally, racism acts as an exacerbating factor in Seadrift by increasing tensions within the community and creating the perception that the Vietnamese presence restricted use and fairness surrounding the crab populations in the Gulf. A component of Alexander’s theory here applies; the American fishermen felt threats their wellbeing, which links “individual and group identity to the resources and spaces being discussed”.

Another component of Alexander’s theory is expressed by the resulting violence from the existing conflict over the fishery. Without legal support to peacefully resolve disputes, Alexander predicts the parties will “seek to resolve the matter for themselves” ; hence the harassment of Vietnamese fishermen and their equipment and the ultimate fatal violence against an American fisherman. Violence and racism exacerbated the existing conflict to involve the Klu Klux Klan (KKK) in the community. However, racism in the Seadrift community waned with the loss of one of their own and the fear of increased racism and violence spurred by the KKK. Ultimately, the conflict between American and Vietnamese fishermen ended when they forced the KKK out of the town. The Americans and the Vietnamese refugees agreed that enough is enough, which allowed the hatred to melt away and the conflict to be settled.