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A sociological view of the body & fashion

‘Do the ways individuals work on their bodies today reflect increased agency to pursue individual body projects, or, does this behaviour indicate there is more pressure to comply with ideals related to appearance in contemporary society?

Sociology is the study of the social nature of human interaction and behaviour. A key question in sociology is whether individuals have agency (able to act independently to make free choices) or if their actions are controlled and determined by external attributes such as wealth, class, gender, and other systems intrinsic to society. Or if new influences bring new control mechanisms, with the individual identity and appearance being held up to unrealistic standards of air brushed celebrities and influencers. One personal way people could have agency is with their body via fashion, and the decisions they make can be construed as them choosing and shaping their identities. Sociological perspectives Marxism and Feminism contend that agency with the body is heavily influenced by these invisible barriers; that the only way to have true agency is through conflict. Whereas symbolic interactionism – the focus of this article – assumes people act on their subjective meanings within their environment, controlling the narrative while also being influenced by it. This definition would entail there is at least a degree of agency within contemporary society; the influences people express are not themselves the product of non-agency; or social control. This article substantiates this by illuminating the changes in fashion over various generations and cultures, arguing that the increase of body projects and the increase of acceptance of those projects means increased agency.

Fashion Fashion is an “unplanned process of recurrent change” (Godart & Aspers, 2013) that is used to create identities that are shaped by the wider culture. Godart & Asper fail to explain that “unplanned” entails a lack of agency, which they do not address. Defined by Websters dictionary as “the prevailing style […] during a particular time” (Merriam-webster, 2021); and maybe more sociological accurate aby Sellerberg as “being first with the latest” (Sellerberg, M. 2001) who posits that fashion “needs followers”, but that to be in fashion “some people” [need to be] “out of fashion”. It is both an idea and an ideal, defined subjectively and culturally. This is evidenced by the differing types of fashion around the world. But does not account for the changes in agency throughout history. Contemporary society has changed fashion from an esoteric form of dress and status (Fashion History Timeline, 2021) to the pursuit of identity [spice girls] (Glamour, 2021). And the exorbitant fashion trends are no longer exclusive to one elite class. The focus on fashion is likely due to the increase of disposable income in contemporary society; this is in direct contrast with the economically stagnant periods of history where fashion would only be concerned about by those in the higher echelons of society.

Fashion & symbolic interactionism Symbolic interactionism is the premise that people live in a world of meaningful symbols such as a wedding ring; and that people [actors] bring forth responses from others (Hausmann, et al., 2011). Fashion is full of symbolic meaning, from the designer dress to the grunge hoodie (RebelsMarket, 2021); people give to and find meaning from fashion and call for a response of mutual agreement on that meaning.

Changes in media representation of men and women in magazines show changes of the ideal image throughout the last century and how they were portrayed in magazines. Above (The Society Pages, 2010) shows the transitions on the cover of Cosmopolitan. Below (Cover Browser, 2021), shows the transitions on the cover of Men’s Health.

The former shows a transition from refinement and class, to an overtly sexualised ideal, and finally the image of a celebrity. The later shows a similar transition from overt physical appearance associated with masculine strength to the image of a celebrity. Each photo is selling an unrealistic expectation of men and women by depicting an idealistic body. Individuals and groups classify the symbols of fashion and use them to anticipate meaning and understanding of the social world (Hausmann, et al., 2011). Understanding the actor’s point of view and agreeing with the subjective meaning culminates in relationships, and the propagation of that meaning. Which also creates the cultural and subcultural trends, which in contemporary society is massed produced by capitalism and marketed via media, particularly social media like snapchat and Instagram that use celebrity culture to endorse their brands (Vogue, 2016). It can be argued that the meaning individuals find are influenced by external influences out of their control, such as wealth (class status), gender, age, geographical location, etc. And these restrictions limit agency regardless of effort. For example, changing location will only change the limitations on agency, it may not enhance or decrease it at all. However, the freedom to change location, change genders, or increase private wealth are all prevalent in contemporary western society when they weren’t in previous centuries. This social mobility within the social stratification has changed from a system resembling a three-tiered structure; upper, middle, lower class; to a multi-layered structure that allows for mobility between each structure that include race, education, religion, gender, and more.

In a cross-cultural study on fashion (Crane & Boyone, 2016) gave reasons why a sociological understanding of fashion is important to develop approaches to issues such as “meaning, production, communication, consumption, and cross-cultural comparisons”; to offer suggestions on how national and cultural differences have either continued or disappeared. The paper explains how fashion has symbolic values which are reflected in and created by a material culture. That this material culture is linked to cultural production and consumption. This highlights a relationship which exists between the public and the private symbolic meanings given to the material that have a relationship with the perceptions of the self, and self-identity. This is because fashion can affect and express the internalised perception of the present and future self [who we think we are, vs who we want to be]. Entwistle (Entwistle, 2000, p.15) claims that the fashioned “dressed body” [begins with] “complex negotiations between one’s” [appearance, and] “many multiple identities”. These negotiations are more internal, whereas historically they were external, while this change is not a sign of agency, it implies an increase in discussion. Howard, (Howard, 2018) shows how trends in size have changed throughout history, and the push for diversity in contemporary society, highlighting progressive emphasis changes on shape in media and the “ideal” body. While fashion is a great tool for identity; perceptions of individuals are private and unknowable to others as they exist within the mind of the individual and cannot be known unless the individual chooses to reveal them. Whether with words, actions, or appearance and bodily presentation [fashion]. Ultimately, people make assumptions that their view of the world is [in part] similar to others with a similar meaning. This is intersubjectivity (Kelly, 1997) which is meaning told with appearance and language resulting in a shared perception of reality.

Fashion & the body The sociological perspective of the body, that Atwater (Kelly 1997) defines as “a source of self-perception”. Including what the individual sees and what others see. The choice of what to do with your own body has not always been up to the individual (Bridge, 2007) as exampled by the creation of the pill. Only in recent years of (in particular, Western) society, has there been developments for the right to choose (McDonell, 2021). There are still restrictions, however, in fashion when wearing uniforms. This exists within the private and the public spheres. Publicly there are multiple jobs where a uniform is mandatory. At a hotel, for example, it is to segregate staff from customer in an approachable and tidy fashion. Privately there are more symbolic reasons to conform to dress codes, for example., weddings. It would be frowned upon to dress casually at a wedding. Despite these restrictions to agency, there are reasons for the dress codes and the restrictions are situational and not permanent; there is still the choice to not adhere to the norm. moreover, the choice to not adhere is itself exempt from external influence too.

People make choices with their own body that tend to reflect their personality, which is subjective to their lived experience. This is exemplified with tattoos and the artwork the individual chooses/creates. This choice is usually very symbolic, having a deeper meaning attached to it which would not be known unless asked (Willen, C. 2020). Lived experiences change between and within cultures, shaping different personalities and different bodies to reflect those personalities. Choices such as tattoos, piercings, jewellery, cosmetic surgery, and clothing all help identify the individual as their own unique person or as a collective. Different cultural events also hold symbolic meaning being the reason for fashion (Farah, 2019). The body is therefore a reflection of cultural standards produced and replicated by people as a way to find an identity (Zealand Tattoo, 2021).

Fashion & identity Identity and symbolic interactionism go together to summarise a general understanding in the hope to create a shared meaning so a person can be sure what they identify as translates to others. Weber (Thompson, K. 2017) argued the meaning was needed before an action could be understood. As such, an understanding of personal likes and dislikes is needed before adopting various forms of fashion. For example, it can be presumed that a person wearing a Metallica t-shirt likes Metallica; this understanding comes from stepping into their shoes and thinking about why a person would wear such clothing / would act in a certain way. Weber called this empathetic understanding “verstehen” (Tucker, 1965). Metallica shirt aside – fashion helps build a personality and identity. By viewing the body as an expression for self-identity, verstehen is used to understand the deeper symbolic meaning behind that identity. Understanding is a way of communicating acceptance to identity, giving others permission to fit in. However, without understanding and acceptance, people can be ridiculed for choosing certain fashion trends. Until recently nerdy and geeky subcultures were scrutinised privately and publicly for their identity. This lack of acceptance often forced people to choose more conformist fashions, for fear of social ridicule. Shows like The Big Bang Theory helped turn geeks and nerds into more relatable and quirky characters, increasing the acceptance of such identities. This cultural change is in part thanks to the change of media representation, decreasing ridicule and in turn increasing acceptance and agency.

Media is a perfect place to play with fashion trends and images of identity. Entwistle mentions (Entwistle, 2000) how clothing allows play on a temporary or permanent basis as “it can fix us into the gendered space” allowing people to adopt where “gender is slipped on an off” by learning vicariously through their screens (pp28).

As media continues to grow it doubles to increase acceptance as well as to offer (potentially) too much choice leading to indecision on which identity is a true reflection of their inner self (Khodadadi, N & Shabanirad, E. 2015. A lack of identity can lead to anomie, which is the feeling of disconnection from society due to instability. This is caused by a lack of purpose or ideals (Khodadadi, N & Shabanirad, E. 2015), which Durkheim related the lack of social regulation to that of a model of the body and failing organs.

Fashion & modernity The modernity of today (Giddens, A. 1990), is the modern era in Europe and refers to how both the social [individual] and the organisational [group] are experiencing greater opportunities than ever before. He argues, however, this high modernity comes at the cost of changes that are out of the control of the individual; environmental destruction, development of military power, and the growth of more totalitarian systems (Giddens, 1990). [Furthermore, because of the greater opportunities – Giddens further posits that because identity is no longer given the self faces “existential tremors” and self-identity becomes “reflexive”. And while there is diversity in identity, the reflexive project of “self” is shared; it is not unique. Moreover, the identities we choose have further implications on the social structure. This structurisation both empowers and constrains, he called this “duality of structure” (Giddens, 1990). That while people are free to choose, their freedom exists within structures. For example, anybody can set up a Facebook account and start selling their own products. But they are dependent on Facebook, capitalism, their internet, and so on. These are forms of biopower structures that support the machine of society by controlling the population (Diana, 2011). The sites people use, the foods people buy, the politics they share are all fashionable and all contribute to the structurisation of society, which in turn affects and controls them. Similar to Giddens, Bourdieu argued that the social structure was maintained by the socially engrained talents, behaviours, and tendencies individual to each culture, which he called the habitus. That actors have the ability to choose differently, and therefore have agency in their choice. With growing forms of social control, however, Giddens would argue there is less agency at this point of high modernity than in recent history.

Fashion & capitalism Stratification of wealth & social status determine what fashion will be desirable in the specific context. This is a limitation on the agency of the consumer; whether someone ‘wants’ a new Armani dress, and whether or not they can afford it are two separate things. Moreover, whether they will fit in with the group or not limits their actions further. This limitation on agency can be demonstrated further with cultural and subcultural trends; while kimonos are common in Japan, in the west they would get different reactions. However, the choice for such fashion choices is still up to the individual regardless of social pressure and perceived consequences. Moreover, however limited an individual’s agency is, there is a degree of agency; there is the choice of saving money or conforming to a perceived or pressured social context, for example. This can be substantiated with wealthy individuals ‘dressing down’ in modern society in relation to how royalty always dressed up [see the below images]. (Rutyna, 2021). (Fashion History Timeline, 2021).

Fashion, the body, & agency This article has highlighted several areas in which fashion interlinks with agency within contemporary society, arguing that agency has continued to develop as modernity continues to transition. However, there are restrictions and limitations to this agency. Independent choice is restricted within structures that are out of the control of the individual, and while there are more opportunities than ever, the lack of a given identity can leave a person feeling lost and uninspired. The habitus that contributes to society adds more ways to control populations. New trends and fashions keep people conforming, falling in line with the norms and values that maintain a stable system. These ever-changing norms are not in the control of newer generations who adopt norms in a reflexive manner. On the other hand, agency exists within the choices that are confined and limited by social trends, norms, and accessibility. The meaning we give to objects makes them more than an inanimate object. Martin (1996. pp5-6), says tools are “complex bundles of individual, social, and cultural meanings”, that can help to teach and learn about the social world. The symbolic meanings giving to tools make them more important and individually more significant. A lighter to one is disposable – to another it is a precious keepsake of a family member. It is these symbolic meanings that give agency to the things we do, as our interpretations are unique to ourselves regardless of external factors. The social mobility within the increasingly versatile system of structuration further assumes an increase in agency, as such, there is certainly increase agency over the body in contemporary society.

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