User:Courage/German military occupation of Norway during World War II

The German military occupation of Norway started when German forces invaded Norway on April 9, 1940 and ended on May 10, 1945, after the capitulation of German forces in Europe.

This period of occupation - usually referred to as the "war years" or "occupation period" in Norway - had defining significance for Norwegian society, and it is only recently that Norway considers itself as having passed out of the "post-war era."

The background for the invasion and occupation
Since World War I, Norway had held on to a policy of strict neutrality, refusing to take any position on the emerging German military power or the Allied response. In reality Norway was seen as siding with Britain under World War I, and the unstated position of the Norwegian government by the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 was that Norway should not "end up on the wrong side". Germany invaded Norway in order to prevent a planned British invasion of that country which would cut Germany off of vital natural resources, specifically the availability of iron ore from mines in Sweden, going through Narvik, and also to secure ice-free harbors from which naval forces could seek to control the North Atlantic.

Consistently with the doctrine of Blitzkrieg, German forces attacked Norway by sea and air in the operation Weserübung starting April 9, 1940. Having gotten a foothold in Oslo and Trondheim, they launched a ground offensive against scattered resistance inland in Norway. Allied forces attempted several counterattacks, but all failed. While military resistance in Norway had little military success, they had the significant political effect of allowing the Norwegian government, including the Royal family to escape and form a government-in-exile.

The nature of the occupation
Vidkun Quisling, the leader of the Norwegian Nazi party known as Nasjonal Samling (National Gathering) had prior to the invasion tried to persuade Adolf Hitler that he would form a government in support of occupying Germans. Although Hitler was unreceptive to the idea, and Quisling's attempt to announce his ascension to power failed, the Nazis allowed him to early assume nominal leadership of the Nazi government in Norway.

Military forces such as the Wehrmacht and Luftwaffe remained under direct command from Germany during war years, but all other authority was vested in Reichskommisar Josef Terboven. He attempted to negotiate an arrangement with the remaining members of the Norwegian parliament that would give a Nazi cabinet the semblance of legitimacy, but these talks failed. After this, Quisling was instituted as head of state, though Terboven held the sole means to use violence as a political tool.

Quisling believed that by ensuring economic stability and mediating between the Norwegian civilian society and the German occupiers, his party would gradually win the trust and confidence of the Norwegian population. Nasjonal Samling did see a surge in membership in the first few years of the occupation, but the membership never reached significant levels and eroded in the latter years of the war.

The Nazi authorities made attempts to enact legislation that supported its actions and policies, but they banned all political parties except NS, appointed local leaders top down, and forced labor unions and other organizations to accept NS leaders.

Although there was much resistance against most of the Nazi government's policies, there was considerable cooperation in ensuring economic activity and social welfare programs.

Several hundred thousand German soldiers were stationed in Norway, by all accounts well in excess of what was needed. Most former German soldiers considered themselves fortunate to be in Norway, at least in comparison with combat duty on the Eastern front.

Resistance, acceptance and collaboration
See main article on the Norwegian resistance movement

It has been estimated that as many as 10% of Norwegians were supportive of the German occupation, though this estimate is uncertain and the support varied throughout the occupation. It is clear that the vast majority of Norwegians were opposed to the occupation, and many resisted it in various ways. This was in large part reinforced by the activism of the government in exile in London, who made regular broadcasts in Norwegian, published news via the underground press, and sponsored commando raids against German targets.

Some Norwegians took part in armed resistance; others provided support for such activities; many Norwegians engaged in various forms of civil disobedience; and many took part in passive resistance efforts. Over time, an organized armed resistance movement was formed under largely unified command. A distinction was made between the home front and the external front. The home front consisted of guerilla and clandestine operations; the external front included the operations of Norway's merchant fleet, Norwegian squadrons under British Royal Airforce command; and several commando groups operating out of England and Shetland. The unified command structure was to play an important role in the orderly transfer of power in May of 1945.

Of the Norwegians that supported the NS, relatively few were active collaborators. Most notorious among these was Henry Oliver Rinnan, who infiltrated Norwegian members of the resistance, tortured and murdered them. About 6,000 Norwegians volunteered for combat duty on the Axis side and were often sent to the Eastern front.

Several thousand Norwegian women had children with German soldiers. The mothers were ostracized and humiliated following the war, and only recently have the offspring of these unions started to identify themselves.

Refugees
Throughout the war years, a number of Norwegians fled the Nazi regime, mostly across the long land border to Sweden. These included Jews, political activists, and others who had reason to fear for the lives. The government set up border patrols to stop these flights, but locals who knew the woods developed ways to bypass them. Along with individuals who hid refugees in their homes, the "border pilots" were among those in the resistance movement that took the greatest risks.

Swedish authorities accepted such refugees and ensured their safety once they had crossed the border, but did little to facilitate the flights. In Sweden, refugees were often confined to camps where their basic needs were met. A total of close to 50.000 Norwegians fled to Sweden during the war.

Material scarcity and ingenuity
Norway lost all its major trading partners the moment it was occupied. Germany became the main trading partner, but could not make up for the lost import and export business. Combined with a general drop in productivity, Norwegians were quickly confronted with scarcity of basic commodities, including food. There was a real risk of famine.

Many if not most Norwegians started growing their own crops and keeping their own livestock. City parks were divided among its inhabitants, who grew potatoes, cabbage, and other hardy vegetables. People kept pigs, chicken and other poultry in their houses and outhouses. Fishing and hunting became more widespread. Gray and black markets provided for flow of goods. Norwegians also learned to use ersatz products for a wide variety of purposes, ranging from fuel to coffee, tea, and tobacco.

Treason trials
Already before the war ended, there was debate among Norwegians about the fate of "traitors" and collaborators. A few favored a "night of long knives" with extrajudicial killings of known offenders. Cooler minds prevailed, and much effort was put into assuring due process of alleged traitors. In the end, 37 people were executed by Norwegian authorities, of whom 25 were Norwegians on the grounds of treason, and 12 were Germans on the grounds of crimes against humanity. 28,750 were arrested, though most were released for lack of probable cause. In the end, 20,000 Norwegians and a smaller number of Germans were given prison sentences. 77 Norwegians and 18 Germans received life sentences. A number of people were sentenced to pay heavy fines, including world-famous novelist and Nobel laureate Knut Hamsun.

The trials have been subject to some criticism in later years. It has been pointed out that sentences became more lenient with the passage of time, and that many of the charges were based on retroactive application of laws.

Legacy of the occupation
The occupation had a profound effect on the collective Norwegian psyche. It instilled in many Norwegians a durable fear of scarcity, which led to a widespread habit of frugality, especially with food. It also educated a whole generation of Norwegians on proper nutrition.

The adversity strengthened and further defined the Norwegian national identity. The history of the resistance movement may have been glorified excessively, but it has also provided Norwegian military and political leaders with durable role models. The shared hardship of the war years also set the stage for social welfare policies of the post-War Norwegian Labour Party governments.