User:Cow Moon456/Expectancy violations theory

Article Draft
Copied from Expectancy violations theory Edited by mrh097 for academic project

Concepts of Expectancy Violations Theory
To give a little bit of background and context to Expectancy Violations Theory is that Expectancy violation is a communication theory which tries to explain the unexpected behaviors of human beings while interacting. The theory is based on the uncertainty reduction theory where the vagueness on the behaviors of the others is reduced through interaction. Expectancy Violations Theory posits that we have developed expectations about how others should communicate with us. When it comes to EVT, this is generally a framework talking about how people do not like for their personal space to be breached when it comes to interpersonal interactions.

Expectancy violation theory also emphasizes on an individual perception of the interaction in a particular situation. People while communicating will create an expectation of how the other will react. Violation to this expectation can cause to a perception that will be positive or negative. People behave differently according to the cultural values they grow up in and this influences the reaction of the people considerably.

Expectancy Violations Theory suggests that unexpected behaviors are formed when that space has been breached or the behavior they expected was not met. In addition, Expectancy Violations Theory posits that communication context influences our interpretation of the violation. Expectancy Violations Theory posits that expectancy, which refers to our anticipation of how others behave, is critical to human communication. There are two types of expectation when it comes to Expectancy Violations Theory, predictive and prescriptive. Predictive expectations are behavior and communication happening according to the expectations in a particular environment, situation or context. While prescriptive expectations are the way people display their behavior and communicate in a particular environment, situation or context.

Another notable concept of Expectancy Violations Theory is that people are often driven by expectations, and when those expectations are not met, it creates discourse and predicted expectations, which shape their expectations when they interact with others moving forward. We should also take into account that expectations have factors like norms and culture, and that could influence the way that people interact. When people come from different backgrounds, they may not know how to interact effectively with people from cultures and backgrounds outside of their own.

So some general things to remember about the Expectancy Violations Theory is that expectations are a learned behavior, the outcome of communication is measured through expectancy, and people's reactions in unexpected situations are created by unexpected behaviors. ￼

Interpersonal communication
It is important to note that EVT can apply to both non-relational interaction and close relationships. In 1998, more than twenty years after the theory was first published, several studies were conducted to catalog the types of expectancy violations commonly found in close relationships.

Participants in friendships and romantic relationships were asked to think about the last time their friend or partner did or said something unexpected. It was emphasized that the unexpected event could be either positive or negative. Participants reported events that had occurred, on average, five days earlier, suggesting that unexpected behaviors happen often in relationships. Some of the behaviors reported were relatively mundane, and others were quite serious. The outcome of the list was a list of nine general categories of expectation violations that commonly occur in relationships.


 * 1) Support or confirmation is an act that provides social support in a particular time of need, such as sitting with a friend who is sick.
 * 2) Criticism or accusation is critical of the receiver and accuse the individual of an offense. These are violations because they are accusations not expected. An example is a ball player telling a teammate he should have caught the ball rather than supportively giving him or her a slap on the back and offering words of encouragement.
 * 3) Relationship intensification or escalation intensifies the commitment of the communicator. For instance, saying "I love you" signifies a deepening of a romantic relationship.
 * 4) Relationship de-escalation signifies a decrease in commitment of the communicator. An example might be spending more time apart.
 * 5) Relational transgressions are violations of the perceived rules of the relationship. Examples include having an affair, deception, or being disloyal.
 * 6) Acts of devotion are unexpected overtures that imply specialness in the relationship. Buying flowers for no particular occasion falls into this category.
 * 7) Acts of disregard show that the partner is unimportant. This could be as simple as excluding a partner or a friend from a collective activity.
 * 8) Gestures of inclusion are actions that show an unexpected interest in having the other included in special activities or life. Examples include invitations to spend a special holiday with someone, disclosure of personal information, or inviting the partner to meet one's family.
 * 9) Uncharacteristic relational behavior is unexpected action that is not consistent with the partner's perception of the relationship. A common example is one member of an opposite-sex friendship demanding a romantic relationship of the other.

In later review of the studies, the support or confirmation category was inserted into acts of devotion and included another category, uncharacteristic social behavior. These are acts that aren't relational but are unexpected, such as a quiet person raising his or her voice.

In terms of the response to expectancy violations, the sensitivity of expectancy violations varies from genders. Research found that women are less tolerant than men when their expectation are violated by negative behaviors, regardless of the types of violations such as dishonesty and immorality.

Friendship
Expectations with friends formulate over time and are usually brought together by a series of observations of behavior and predictions on how that friend will act in the future. When these expectations are violated, it often can be damaging and dangerous for a close friendship. It can cause an end to the friendship and bring a strong negative experience in that person's life. After time and experiences with that friend we might suspect them to act consistently around me in the way they have always acted, that is until a violation to this expectation takes place. For example, when they begin “breaking promises or even acting in an inauthentic manner to impress others, can have aversive consequences for close relationships” (Cohen 2010). The fact is, we expect our friends to act in a social manner where they are adhere to all of our personal rules we set in our minds. That includes being nice, kind, considerate, and refraining from any comment that puts another down. This is a part of the personal rules we set within ourselves with a personal friendship, that is until we are in a different setting with that individual and they are around different people and the rules are broken. While this might be an offense in one's eyes, it may not be offensive in the others. Each negative experience can deteriorate the relationship and allow more experiences where expectations are continually violated until the relationship is dissolved. Cohen said “the more that a friendship is voluntary, easily replaceable, and disconnected from external pressures to continue, the more vulnerable it is to expectancy violation damage” (Cohen, 2010). Someone will always look for the better option if a negative experience has taken place. The more invested someone is in a friendship, the stronger the effect will have on the individual when expectations are violated. There is also an interesting perspective of expectation violation when gender is considered. Friendships with members of the same sex usually have a completely different feel to the relationship than friendships with members of the opposite sex. Women are generally less tolerant with members of the opposite sex when violations have taken place. Relationships over time, whether it be with the same sex or not, tend to fail when the other will fall away from the behaviors and norms that the other is used to. This can be shown with hostile attitudes, sharp comments, distancing away from the other, etc. Both parties are also capable of violating each other's expectations at the same time. It is not just one person in the relationship that perceives behavior as unusual. One can respond to a violation with another social violation, leaving the friendship in confusion of the direction it is going.

Family Relationships: Phubbing
Expectations in family relationships are prone to being violated via phubbing. Phubbing is a term coined to describe when individuals are interacting in physical proximity with one another, however they end up going on their phone, and mentally remove themselves from the conversation and physical reality. This violates expectations in family relationships when a younger individual is around an older adult. Travis Kadylak's article, “An investigation of perceived family phubbing expectancy violations and well-being among U.S older adults”, reveals that “older adults feel ignored and disrespected” in situations where a younger family is phubbing. In this case, the younger individually and unconsciously violated the older adult's expectations that stems from the adult's perception of social etiquette. Kadylak then call for further research in the future on how phubbing expectancy violations affect the well-being of older adults.

Romantic relationships
Expectancy violations happen frequently in romantic relationships. In relationships there is an unspoken expectation when interacting and that is the significant other will give their full undivided attention when in the presence of their significant other. As the new generation evolves we can see the face to face contact has changed. Unfortunately, with the access use of phones and social media the attention of individuals has shifted to their devices and continues to become worse. Since there is access to many mobile devices, there has been an increase of lack of communication face to face. This has made it difficult for some relationships to grow and/ or has created conflict because the expectation of attention has been shifted. "Individuals expect conversational partners to be moderately involved in an interaction (Burgoon, Newton, Walther, & Baesler, 1989). Within existing relationships, partners rely on one another to show interest and immediacy in interactions (White, 2008). However, the presence of cell phones and the expectation to be constantly available (Ling, 2012) impacts partners' abilities to give full attention to one another" (Miller-Ott, A., & Kelly, L. 2015).

Regardless of where the romantic relationship takes place, people are likely to have negative valence about cell phone usage if their demand of attention and intimacy are violated. The negative behaviors include texting, viewing news and playing games. In addition, large quantity of annoying cell phone usage during the date has great impact on romantic partner's negative valence towards the violated behaviors. However, Miller-Ott and Kelly found that small amount of cell phone usage during date is acceptable, such as responding to a text message and quickly bringing attentiveness back to the date partner. The same behavior in different occasions and contexts is viewed differently in terms of the degree of valence. Research found that same behavior is viewed as more negative in a restaurant than at home. Since people are more likely to have higher expectations for undivided attention during formal contexts, using cell phone in formal dates will more negatively violate partner's expectations. Divided attention is acceptable in casual contexts – therefore, the degree of expectancy violations is low under a hanging out context.

After expectation are violated in the romantic relationships, one may assume that an apology may fix expectations that were violated, however that is not the case. In the article “ Apologies, Expectations, and Violations: An Analysis of Confirmed and Disconfirmed Expectations for Responses to Apologies”, Benjamin W Chiles and Michael E. Roloff found that “apology is positively evaluated by apologizers, this relationship is moderated by their expectations of acceptance prior to the actual response to the apology”. In the article “Forgiveness and forgiving communication in dating relationships: An expectancy-investment explanation”, Laura K. Guerrero and Guy F. Bachman found that high quality relationships tend to forgive more than relationships with less investments, yet they tend to inflict hurt intentionally.

Cell phone usage
Cell phone usage behaviors that do not contradict intimate moment are viewed as positive violations, including sharing interesting messages and playing online games together. People have less negative valence on cell phone usage if they gain more reward from the behaviors.

Research also found the most common response to the violated cell phone usage is to do nothing. However, people have different reactions to the violations under different stages of romantic relationships. In the early stage of dating, people are more likely to respond by indirect messages and silence. While there are direct verbal responses when expectations are violated in established relationships.

Sexual resistance
Sexual resistance is viewed as a typical expectancy violation in romantic relationships. In 2003, Bevan used EVT to evaluate the impact of sexual resistance on close relationships. The research focused on two considerations: relational contexts and directness of the messages.

The research concluded that people who are resisted in a romantic relationship perceived the violation of sexual resistance as more negative and unexpected than those resisted in a regular cross-sex friendship. The reason might because romantic partners believe that they have clearer and deeper understanding of each other's expectations and degree of acceptance and tolerance. When it comes to message directness of sexual resistance, although the study did not find any significant difference of levels of violation valence and expectedness between direct and indirect messages, direct sexual resistance messages in close relationships proved to be more relationally important than indirect messages. Therefore, direct sexual resistance messages will be a harmful factor that affects the continuity of a romantic relationship.

Hurtful events
The degree of expectancy violations in romantic relationships quality affect how partners react to hurtful events caused by their partner. Partners who view their significant others as positively rewarding are more keen to use constructive communication after experiencing a negative hurtful event. EVT analysis approach also show that if the negative valence happens when partners find the other to be unrewarding, it results in destructive communication, leading to breakups.

Online dating
Maria DelGreco and Amanda Denes investigate each gender’s expectations and interpretations of communicative cues in the initiation stage of heterosexual online dating. When women expect men’s responses to compliment, women face negative deviation when men express narcissism and agreement. Moreover, women with positive deviations of expectations are assessed more negatively than those who align with expectations.

Computer-mediated communication and social media
As has previously been addressed, EVT has evolved tremendously over the years, expanding beyond its original induction when it focused on FtF communication and proxemics. The advancement of information and communications technology has provided tools for expressing oneself and conveying messages beyond just typing in text. As already discussed, arousal can divert one's attention or interest from a message to the source of the arousal. Virtual realities created online through computer-mediated communication, especially those which evoke strong visual presence through media, can increase arousal levels, such as those with high violent or sexual content. Just as people may use television viewing to increase or decrease arousal levels, people may use media in online communication to increase or decrease arousal levels. People may interact with others online by assuming the identities of avatars which may take on completely different, alternate personalities. The differences in perceived intimateness, co-presence, and emotionally-based trust can very significantly between avatar communication and other communication modalities such as text chat, audio, and audio-visual. The media options available to users when communicating with others online present a host of potential expectancy violations unique to CMC.

The introduction of social media networks such as Facebook and Twitter, as well as dating social networks such as Match.com and eHarmony, has greatly contributed to the increased use of computer-mediated communication (CMC) which now offers a context for studying communication devoid of nonverbal information. Though these media are relatively new, they have been in existence long enough for users to have developed norms and expectations about appropriate behaviors in the online world. However, there has been a lag by researchers to study and understand these new established norms, which makes CMC rich with heuristic possibilities from a communications theory perspective.

Ramirez and Wang studied the occurrence and timing of modality switching, or shifts from online communication to FtF interaction, from the perspective of EVT. Their research documented inconsistent findings which revealed in some instances relationships were enhanced and in others they were dampened, indicating the expectations, evaluations, and outcomes associated with initial modality switches varied amongst individuals. Additionally, studies have found that when individuals who meet online meet face-to-face for the first time, the length of time spent communicating online can determine whether individuals will rate physical characteristics of each other positively or negatively. Unlike FtF communication, CMC allows people to pretend to be connected with a person who violates their expectancy by ignoring violations or filtering news feed. Meanwhile, people can also cut the connection completely with someone who is not important by deleting friendship status when a serious violation occurs. A confrontation is much more likely for close friends than for acquaintances, and compensation is much more likely for acquaintances, a finding which contrasts typical EVT predictions. Furthermore, EVT on the Internet environment is strongly related to online privacy issues.

Facebook
In social media, such as Facebook, people are connected online with friends and sometimes strangers. Norm violations on Facebook may include too many status updates, overly emotional status updates or Wall posts, heated interactions, name calling through Facebook's public features, and tags on posts or pictures that might reflect negatively on an individual. Research indicates that the perception of this act as a negative expectancy violation is influenced by factors such as the duration of the Facebook friendship and the nature of the personal ties between the individuals involved. Longer-standing Facebook friendships, as well as stronger personal connections, tend to result in the unfriending action being viewed as a more significant breach of social norms and expectations. This severity, in turn, plays a role in whether the individual who initiates the unfriending communicates their decision to the other party. The research highlights the intricate dynamics of online social interactions and the weighted considerations behind the decision to unfriend, reflecting the nuanced nature of digital relationships and the expectations that govern them.

In a study conducted by Fife, Nelson, and Bayles of focus groups from a Southeastern liberal arts university, five themes were ascertained regarding Facebook use and expectancy violations:


 * ""Don't stalk' – and when you do, don't talk about it"
 * Though an understanding exists among Facebook participants that users will use the site to keep track of the behavior of others in a number of ways, excessive monitoring is likely to be perceived as an expectancy violation.
 * "Don't embarrass me with bad pictures"
 * Users may have the ability to control which pictures they post on their own Facebook page, but they do not have the ability to control what others post. Posting and "tagging" unflattering pictures of others may create expectancy violations.
 * "Don't mess up my profile"
 * Several participants expressed annoyance of others who alter their profiles knowing that their alterations could be perceived negatively, though they did not mention changing their passwords or protecting themselves in other ways.
 * "Choose an appropriate forum for messages"
 * Messages can be sent between Facebook participants through 'Facebook messages', which are not public, or 'wall postings', which can be viewed by anyone specified in the user's privacy controls. Posting messages which may be perceived as private, embarrassing, or inappropriate to a wall posting can create expectancy violations.
 * "Don't compete over number of friends"
 * Facebook users maintain a running total of 'friends' on their profile which is viewable to others. Engaging in comparisons with others over this statistic can create expectancy violations.

In 2010, Stutzman and Kramer-Duffield examined college undergraduates' motivations to have friends-only profiles on Facebook. Having a friends-only profile is a practical method to enhance privacy management on Facebook. The two authors made distinctions between intended audience, to whom one hopes to disclose the Facebook profile, and expected audience, a group of people by whom one thinks the Facebook profile has been viewed. The study indicated that "expectancy violations were identified as instances where an expected audience was not jointly identified as an intended audience". Facebook networks were categorized into different levels: strong ties of family and intimate friends, weak ties comprising "casual friends and campus acquaintances", and outsiders such as "faculty or administrators". According to the study, expectancy violations by weak ties showed greater relevance to the establishment of a friends-only profile among college undergraduates, compared to other Facebook network ties.

Electronic mail
Email has become one of the most widely used methods of communication within organizations and workplaces. When discussing expectancy violations with electronic e-mail, just as with other modes of communication, a distinction must be made between inadvertent violations of norms and purposeful violations, referred to as 'flaming'. Flaming is defined as hostile and aggressive interactions via text-based CMC.

One form of expectancy violation in email is the length of time between the sending of the initial email and the receiver's reply. Communicator reward valence plays a large part in how expectancy violations are handled in email communications. In computer-mediated communication, people have expectations to others’ online behaviors based on individual identity. In online contexts, violations are not simply assessed as positive or negative. Some violations are ambiguous such as e-mail response latency. In 2017, Nicholls and Rice stated that “when deviation is ambiguous, the communicator’s reward value will mediate the perceptions of the deviation.”

Chronemic studies on email have shown that in organizations, responder status played a large part in how individuals reacted to various lapses in response to the previously sent email. Long pauses between responses for high-status responders produced positive expectancy violation valence and long pauses from low-status responders produced a negative expectancy violation valence. However, in the case of job interviews, long pauses between email for high-status candidates reflected negatively on their reviews. Expectations for email recipients to respond within a normative time limit illustrate the medium's capacity for expectancy violations to occur.

Teacher anger
McPherson, Kearney, and Plax examined teacher anger in college classrooms through the lens of norm violations. Naturally, teachers will become frustrated and angry with students in classrooms from time to time. How teachers express themselves and convey those emotions will determine how students respond and interpret those emotional demonstrations. The students judged the appropriateness of teachers' anger in classrooms in the modal expressions of distributive aggression, passive aggression, integrative assertion, and nonassertive denial. Students rated the aggressive expressions as highly intense, destructive, and inappropriate (or non-normative), including such behaviors as sarcasm or putdowns (most frequently cited), verbal abuse, rude and condescending behaviors toward students, and acts intended to demoralize students. The students described assertive displays as appropriate and less intense. Although anger is often considered to be a negative emotion, teacher anger is not necessarily a violation of classroom norms. Based on the study, intense and aggressive displays of teacher anger are considered socially inappropriate by students. These perceived norm violations result in negative evaluations of the teacher and the course. Because only integrative-assertive expressions of teacher anger were positively related to students' perceptions of appropriateness, the study concluded that teachers should avoid intense, aggressive anger displays and should rather assertively and directly discuss the problem with students.

Teacher dress
Clothing is considered a form of nonverbal communication. Dress communicates status, hierarchy, credibility, and attractiveness. Specific social codes dictate what forms of dress are appropriate in various cross-cultural contexts. When individuals wear clothing that is deemed inappropriate for a given situation, or when an individual's clothing does not seem to match their perceived status or attractiveness, this can constitute an expectancy violation. Studies on clothing and teacher perceptions have shown that when teachers wear formal attire, students rate their credibility higher. However, for high-reward teachers, clothing formality did not raise perceptions of attractiveness.

Expectancy Violations Theory in Educational Contexts
EVT posits that deviations from expected behavior can influence social judgments. In the context of teacher dress, formal attire aligns with expectations of a teacher's role, and such congruence typically results in favorable credibility assessments. The impact of clothing on expectations, where attire considered appropriate to the teaching context bolstered perceptions of a teacher's potential for student academic success.

Implications for Teacher Dress Code
The implications of these studies are twofold: they reaffirm the importance of attire as a component of nonverbal communication within educational settings, and they highlight the potential for teacher attire to align with institutional norms and expectations to enhance educational outcomes. While the preference for formality in attire may vary by educational context, the consensus points to the benefit of teachers adopting attire that reflects the scholastic values and expectations of their specific academic environments.

Instructor credibility in college classroom
According to Sidelinger and Bolen, students might be dissatisfied with instructors who talk a lot during class. After researching compulsive communication and communication satisfaction, they concluded that if an instructor is evaluated as credible by the students, his credibility decreases students’ dissatisfaction despite his talkativeness. Particularly, instructor's goodwill, such as politeness and care for students, is the most effective characteristic to alleviate students’ negative feelings towards them (the talkative instructor).

Expanding on this, EVT suggests that communication behaviors deviating from expectations can be perceived as either positive or negative violations. When an instructor's behavior, like excessive talking, contrasts with student expectations of a participatory, student-centered environment, it constitutes an expectancy violation. However, the impact of such a violation hinges on the perceived credibility of the instructor.

Instructor credibility, shaped by expertise, trustworthiness, and goodwill, can act as a buffer against the negative effects of such expectancy violations. Goodwill, in particular, plays a crucial role. When students perceive an instructor as genuinely concerned about their learning and well-being, they are more likely to overlook behaviors otherwise considered negative. This is because EVT emphasizes the relationship's nature over the behavior itself in determining the outcome of expectancy violations.

Furthermore, cultural differences among students, the discipline, course level, and class dynamics can influence the context and perception of expectancy violations. Future research could explore how different expectancy violations (like talkativeness, humor, strictness) interact with dimensions of instructor credibility and how cultural factors among students shape their expectations and perceptions of instructor behavior. This would provide a deeper understanding of how instructor behaviors affect student satisfaction and learning outcomes in diverse educational environments.

Course ratings
Most American colleges and universities employ course rating surveys as a method to gauge teacher effectiveness and the degree to which students are satisfied with the pedagogy of their professors. Expectancy violation and violation valence play a part in course ratings because a wide range of expectancies exist for students while taking a course. Common expectancies for students include stimulation and interest, instructor behavior, relevance of the course, and the student's expected and actual success in the course. A higher education study on EVT and course ratings analyzed 228 students in seven introductory sociology classes at a university of 25,000 students. Since the courses were required for most students, were open to all students, used the same textbook, and met for the same length of time during the semester, expectancy violations in the classroom could be reported more accurately. Some factors used to report the data included instructor personality, interestingness and informativeness of textbook materials, difficulty of lectures, lecturer speaking ability, and the ability to answer questions. At the end of the study, the only factor that affected course ratings was relevance. Expectancies had virtually no effect otherwise on course evaluations. This reason could be attributed to the fact that students who found a course highly relevant were already interested in the subject area and were more motivated to do well.

Nontraditional college students
EVT has been used to study the experiences of non-traditional college and university students who begin an undergraduate education over the age of 25. The study focused on the students' expectations of their professors and how they should behave in the classroom. Since nontraditional students often feel that they are different from their academic peers, and since the traditional university setting focuses on the 18-23-year-old demographic, studying nontraditional student classroom experiences can help higher education institutions instruct teachers on how to behave in the classroom. Traditional and non-traditional students have been shown to expect teachers to make use of examples, provide feedback, and adequately prepare them for exams. Both traditional and non-traditional students have been found to have their expectations for instructor clarity negatively violated. Surprisingly, non-traditional students differed from traditional students by responding negatively to affinity-seeking behaviors and believed that instructors should be less concerned with making class more fun and enjoyable.

Student disclosures in college classroom
In 2013, Frisby and Sidelinger conducted a research about student disclosures in college classroom, which discussed about what kinds of student disclosures would violate peers’ expectations and their perceptions about the disclosers. According to the study, those who make inappropriate disclosures violate others’ expectations most in a classroom environment. Inappropriate disclosures are described as high frequent, negative, offensive and irrelevant topics. Disclosers of inappropriate information are more likely to be described as incompetent students, and they are less likeable than students who disclose appropriate information that are related to course materials.

Students' expectations towards instructors in online classes
Taking EVT as a lens, Renee Bourdeaux and Lindsie Schoenack investigate students’ reasons for taking online classes, their expectations towards instructors, and the derivation of expectations of instructors’ behaviors. Research shows that students expect clarity, respect, and well-designed course accommodating to the online environment. Participants consider effective communication and improving learning as behaviors bringing positive results. However, unprofessional behaviors, such as lack of use of teaching tools decreasing the productivity of classes, lead to negative results.

Business communication crisis
EVT can also apply to everyday business interaction between long-term partners, new partners, and even the consumers. Each time a business interacts with another, both sides expect a positive gain in some capacity, however in reality this is not the case, losses are inevitable. In the article “The Role of Prior Expectancies and Relational Satisfaction in Crisis” (2014), Sora Kim asserts that "expectancy violations caused by a crisis tend to increase uncertainty about an organization’s performance in the crisis-related area". The author states that stakeholders, in the case of the BP Oil spill, held high levels of uncertainty towards the organization due to the high level of expectancy violations committed by BP. In the article "How does Corporate Reputation Affect Customer Loyalty in Corporate Crisis", Sabrina Helm and Julia Tolsdorf found that firms with greater reputation and customer loyalty are set to high expectations by the public, and tend to suffer more loss in profits in the event of a crisis, while firms with low reputations suffer minor losses. This shows that the public places its trust and loyalty in corporations due to their reputation, thus resulting in favorable outcomes for corporations. This reputation is also an Achilles heel for the corporation in times of crisis because when an expectation violation is committed by the corporations it produces negative outcomes for the corporation and the public's trust in them. Sora Kim also exposes similar findings in her study, specifically on how expectations violations produces uncertainties in stakeholders and the public during times of crisis. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is an expectation the public has set for major corporations and businesses, Nick Lin-Hi and Igor Blumberg also found that not practicing CSR negatively affect corporate reputation.

YJ Sohn and Ruthann Lariscy utilize EVT to investigate the role corporate reputation plays in crisis situations and how the crisis affects the reputation valence, especially in a CSR (corporate social responsibility) crisis context. The previous high reputation leads to higher expectations for the corporation, which results in more detailed investigations of the expectation violation behaviors.

Profanity use
Swearing is one example of observable instance of verbal expectancy violations. Examples of swearing expectancy violations include U.S. Vice President Dick Cheney telling Patrick Leahy, Senator of Vermont, to "go fuck yourself", actor Christian Bale's lashing out toward a crew member who walked in front of the camera while he was filming, and U.S. Vice President Joe Biden's remarks during a live broadcast of his speech congratulating U.S. President Barack Obama on passage of the health care reform bill, commenting that it was a "big fucking deal". Expletives also vary among different cultures, so valence of expectancy violations involving swearing may differ when used in different contexts.

In workplaces
Swearing is common among many workplaces. Swearing has been identified functionally as one of several ways to express emotion in response to workplace stress, to convey verbal aggression, or to engage in deviant workplace behavior (Johnson, 2012). In formal work settings, people have much stronger feelings that their expectations are violated by swearing than in casual occasions. Expletives are more prevalent in unstructured conversations than in more structured, task-oriented ones (Johnson, 2012). The use of profanity has been shown to influence the perceptions of speakers. It may also have emotional impact on the user and the audience. Research has shown that profanity users appear less trustworthy, less sociable, and less educated. The more swearing messages one expresses that violate respondent's expectations in workplaces, the more negative evaluations the respondent will generate about the speaker's incompetency. These traits are likely to appear as fixed among profanity users. Moreover, the content of the swearing messages also poses great impact on the extent of expectancy violations in formal work settings. The verbal messages include words related to sex, excretion and profaneness. Research found that respondents experience highest level of surprise about the swearing with sexual expressions. Thus their expectations are more likely to be violated by sexual swearing than excretory and profane words. A more productive approach than focusing on whether a specific word is offensive may be to make sure that those engaging in workplace swearing are aware of how they and their messages might be perceived in multiple ways (Johnson, 2012).

Evaluation of media figures
Expectancy violations are tightly related to the changes of people's evaluation on their relationships with media figures. In 2010, Cohen made comparisons between relationships with friends and media figures in order to find similarities and differences of people's reactions when their expectations are violated in these two relationships. Violations were generally divided in three categories: social violations such as making offensive comments, trust violations such as making up stories about their life experience, and moral violations such as cheating in a marital relationship or drunk driving.

Research indicated that in both friendships and relationships with media figures, social and trust violations are more offensive than moral violations. Specifically, people are more intolerable about moral violations from media figures than from their friends. According to the study, the reason for the intolerance is because relationships with media figures are relatively weak that people invest less on the relationships with media figures than on friendships. The type of media figures is also an important factor to determine the changes of closeness with media figures. People have different expectations to various types of media figures. Research discussed that moral violations negatively influence relationships with athletes, damaging their positive and energetic appearance expected by the public. Social violations reduce closeness with TV hosts, whom people expect as amiable public figures.

James Bonus, Nicholas Matthews, and Tim Wulf investigate adults’ expectations towards movie characters before and after movie releasing. The result shows that when the villain behaves more morally than expected, there is a warming in the parasocial relationship between participants and villains. However, when conforming to moral expectations, there is no weakening in the parasocial relationship between heroes and participants.

Health and self-improvement
Expectancy violation theory has even been applied to encouraging healthy habits and changing bad ones. In a study by Karolien van den Akker, Myrr van den Broek, Remco C. Havermans, and Anita Jansen, expectancy violation theory was tested to see if it was successful in changing ingrained cravings for chocolate. Although researchers did not find that expectancy violation mediated responses to chocolate cravings, they believe more research is needed to determine whether this theory is profitable for this kind of application to human behavior.

Career development and job searching
Stephanie Smith examines how recent college graduates react to expectation violations in job searching and career development through communication. Smith finds that recent college graduates employ a package of both traditional and online social networking job searching strategies. As graduates expect job searching would be difficult, they are still surprised by the required intensity and effort. Through the lens of EVT, candidates with the most realistic goals and expectations received better results during the recruitment season. EVT also helps to understand candidates' interactions with contacts with potential rewards during the networking conversation. Also, a thank-you letter is regarded as a positive deviation from expectations because it reduces uncertainty.

Expectations of adults with autism
Expectancy violations theory has been applied in studies to determine whether people judge adults with autism as violating their expectations since people with autism can exhibit little-to-no eye contact, or facial expression, not recognize certain nonverbal cues, or utilize tones that neurotypicals may perceive as abnormal. In one manuscript replying to another study, Bishop describes communication deficits in autistics as potentially violating one's expectations for social communication, thus being a form of expectation violation since people with autism can struggle with social communication. One study by Lim, Young, and Brewer hypothesized that people can incorrectly perceive autistic adults as having no credibility or being deceptive. They believed that due to expectancy violations theory, people will judge those who violate their expectations unfavorably in a negative light. They recorded videos of autistic and neurotypical adults attempting to persuade the interviewer that they did not steal an envelope of money and the participants of the study were to judge whether they believed the individuals in the interview were lying or telling the truth. The results showed that the autistic people were perceived as deceptive and less credible than the neurotypicals in the videos. These findings supported the hypothesis that autistic adults can violate expectations through certain behaviors or through other's knowledge of their diagnosis. A similar study by the same resarchers, also conducted through interviews also showed that the behaviors of autistic adults can effect their percieved credibility. Another study by Logos, Brewer, and Young sought to determine the effect of EVT in a court setting. Their goal was to determine whether EVT could be applied to autistic adults in a forensic setting, using autistic and non-autistic "defendants", hypothesizing that the results would show that autistic adults would be judged guilty due to violations. Results showed that their hypothesis was correct, despite evidence indicating innocence.