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Regum Maurorum et Romanorum The Regnum Maurorum et Romanorum (or "Mauro-Roman kingdom" in English) was a berber kingdom that existed in the Maghreb between the fourth century and the Arab conquest of North Africa.

Characteristics
Emperor Diocletian reorganized the Roman Empire in 298 AD and later withdrew from the area of Volubilis, the Rif mountains in northern Morocco and western Algerian Atlas mountain during and after the crisis of the 3rd century. Berber rulers created a small independent kingdom, centered around the capital Altava and the fully romanised city of Volubilis.

This kingdom acted like a small Roman client-State, but sometimes the berber tribes living in that semi-free territory raided the Roman cities of the coast. This Mauro-Roman kingdom was never conquered by the Vandals, who destroyed the Roman presence in the Maghreb in 429-435 AD. The Vandal kingdom allowed the creation of other Romano-Berber states at the borders, but fell a century later, conquered by the Byzantines empire, who established an African prefecture, and later the Exarchate of Carthage. Since then there it is little historical accounts of the Mauro-Roman kingdom. It disappeared completely when the Arabs conquered the region around 708 AD.

History
Mauretania and western Numidia were annexed by Rome in 40 AD, and made a Roman Province in 43 and later enlarged with the name of Mauretania Tingitana ad Mauretania Caesariensis. But in the fourth century the Roman Empire lost an area in the border of actual Maroc and Algeria to the local berber tribes.

Indeed Maximian (co-emperor with Diocletian) at the end of the third century was able to focus on the conflict in Mauretania (Northwest Africa). As Roman authority weakened during the third century, nomadic Berber tribes harassed settlements in the region with increasingly severe consequences. In 289, the governor of Mauretania Caesariensis (roughly modern Algeria) gained a temporary respite by pitting a small army against the Bavares and Quinquegentiani, but the raiders soon returned. In 296, Maximian raised an army, from Praetorian cohorts, Aquileian, Egyptian, and Danubian legionaries, Gallic and German auxiliaries, and Thracian recruits, advancing through Spain that autumn. He may have defended the region against raiding Moors before crossing the Strait of Gibraltar into Mauretania Tingitana (roughly modern Morocco) to protect the area from Frankish pirates.

By March 297, Maximian had begun a bloody offensive against the Berbers. The campaign was lengthy, and Maximian spent the winter of 297–298 AD resting in Carthage before returning to the field. Not content to drive them back into their homelands in the Atlas Mountains – from which they could continue to wage war – Maximian ventured deep into Berber territory. The terrain was unfavorable, and the Berbers were skilled at guerrilla warfare, but Maximian pressed on. Apparently wishing to inflict as much punishment as possible on the tribes, he devastated previously secure land, killed as many as he could, and drove the remainder back into the Sahara. His campaign was concluded by the spring of 298 AD.

Anyway at the beginning of the fourth century, parts of Roman Mauretania were re-conquered by Berber tribes. Direct Roman rule became confined to a few coastal cities (such as Septum (Ceuta) in Mauretania Tingitana and Cherchell in Mauretania Caesariensis) by the late 3rd century. Historical sources about inland areas are sparse, but these were apparently controlled by local Berber rulers who, however, maintained a degree of Roman culture, including the local cities, and usually nominally acknowledged the suzerainity of the Roman Emperors. One of these rulers, Masuna, described himself as Rex gentium Maurorum et Romanorum ("King of the Roman and Moorish peoples"). Masuna is known only from an inscription on a fortification in Altava (modern Ouled Mimoun, in the region of Oran), dated 508, and he is known to have possessed Altava and at least two other cities, Castra Severiana and Safar, as mention is made of officials he appointed there.

Altava was later the capital of another ruler, Garmul or Garmules, who resisted Byzantine rule in Africa but was finally defeated in 578. Indeed in the late 560s, the Moorish king Garmul of the "Regnum Maurorum et Romanorum" launched raids into Roman territory, and although he failed to take any significant town, three successive generals (the praetorian prefect Theodore and the magister militum Theoctistus in 570 AD, and Theoctistus' successor Amabilis in 571) are recorded by John of Biclaro to have been killed by Garmul's forces. His activities, especially when regarded together with the simultaneous Visigoth attacks in Spania, presented a clear threat to the province's authorities. Garmul was not the leader of a mere semi-nomadic tribe, but of a fully-fledged barbarian kingdom, with a standing army. Thus the new emperor, Tiberius II Constantine, re-appointed Thomas as praetorian prefect, and the able general Gennadius was posted as magister militum with the clear aim of reducing Garmul's kingdom. Preparations were lengthy and careful, but the campaign itself, launched in 577–78, was brief and effective, with Gennadius utilizing terror tactics against Garmul's subjects. Garmul was defeated and killed by 579, and the coastal corridor between Tingitana and Caesariensis secured. The Byzantine historian Procopius also mentions another independent ruler, Mastigas, who controlled most of Mauretania Caesariensis in the 530s.But some historians argue that Mastigas and Masuna were the same king.

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CHRISTIAN BERBERS

Christian Berbers are Berbers who worship or worshipped the christian faith. Usually the term is referred to the centuries when North Africa was ruled by the Roman Empire. These initial Christian Berbers probably disappeared around the fifteenth century and only in the nineteenth century some Berbers embraced again Christianity, when European colonialism started conquering the region.

Characteristics
Actually there are nearly half a million Christian berbers, many living even in Western Europe and in the Americas. Nearly three hundred thousands live in the Maghreb, from Morocco and Algeria to Tunisia and Libya.

For several centuries after the Arab conquest, some communities of native Christians remained in the southern part of Tunisia, without receiving external assistance to revive their faith. The oases of Jarîd and Nafzâwa, controlled by Ibadite Muslims, certainly constituted the last refuge for those North-African Christians. Many contemporary historians consider that they could live on there, until the 14th or even until the 18th century.

According to Claude Lepelley, Latin Western Christianity was born in North Africa. After Augustus, some decades before the end of the first century, Christian communities were already numerous and dynamic. Africa saw the birth of the berber Augustine of Hippo (Saint'Augustine), father of the Church whose thought was to have a decisive influence on Christianity in the Middle Ages and in the Modern Era

History
The first appearance document that allows us to understand Christianity in Africa is located in the Africa of the early Christians, before the year 180 AD: the "Acts of the Martyrs scillitans". This is the record of attendance of a dozen Christians in a village of Africa Proconsularis still not identified, in front of the proconsul of Africa.

The early history of Christianity in Africa is closely linked to the person of Tertullian. Born of pagan parents, he joined the Christian community in Carthage in 195 Ad and became close to the localmunicipal elite, which protected him against repression by the authorities. Having received the priesthood, he fought in his early writings for the Christian Church to be officially recognized by the Roman Empire.

We can talk, after Tertullian, of "African Christianity" as it adopts a specific character, making himself conspicuous by his intransigence. To grow in number of followers he anchored in popular berber life the Christian doctrine, in order to emancipate all the institutions that structured the pagan Roman society of the time. But what separates and most opposed the Roman authorities and the community of Christians, it is undoubtedly the fact that they refuse to serve in the army of the Empire. Tertullian emphasizes the difficulty of reconciling the military oath with that given at baptism. Tertullian himself advocated suffering and martyrdom as a way to salvation, bringing quite eloquent on the part of Christians choice : some chose dead "heroic " fighting against eg Egyptian wrestlers { { reference necessary }}. Martyrdom became an act of resistance and memory, part of a commemorative calendar, basic Christian calendar.

[ [File : Tunisian - christian- mosaic.jpg | thumb | 300px | Christian Mosaic at [ [ National Museum of Bardo (Tunisia) ] ].]]

Through this very strict and difficult to defend in a population that does not include most of the time the choice of Christian doctrinal basis, Tertullian seeks to avoid his community to mix with pagan rites and customs to retain its specificity and preserve his chances of hatching. However, he will not get away from city life, much less that of the Empire. He loves Empire and is convinced of its benefits in the African provinces.

Christians, however, have helped through their uncompromising need both dividing and affirmation within African society , to create a climate of tension between them and the rest of the population , but especially with the imperial power to this threat of division , not slow to respond.

Christian doctrine has taken root in the first place on the African coast is developed by following the inland. If we do not precisely located the city of origin of scillitains martyrs ( Scillium, Scillitium in the region of Carthage, today [ [ Kasserine ]]) , those of [ [ Madaure]] Miggin and [ [ Namphamon]] are attested at the same time : Christians know their first martyrs in a politico- religious context in constant evolution.

The { { s- | III | e }} is experiencing a significant weakening of the religious foundations of imperial power. Supposed to be protected by the gods, the myth of the emperor, who is above men is called into doubt by the pagans , especially after the death of [ [ Decius]] in combat, [ [251]]. The culprits are quickly found their wickedness, Christians are accused of having provoked the anger of the gods.

Decius himself had already introduced the notion of " scapegoat " for the so-called " [ [ persecution of Decius]] " of [ [249] ] to [ [251]]. Roman persecution, the first official attack against the African Church is endorsed by an edict promulgated in 249 which obliges Christians to pray for the salvation of the Emperor, and to proceed according to the sacrifices and libations.

This forces Christians to a choice. Several attitudes are identified: some follow the instructions relayed by African authorities cited and fold the edict, ranging up animal sacrifices - something forbidden by their dogma - ; others for whom it is inconceivable to deny the Gospel prefer to flee ; others choose to openly declare their dissatisfaction with the population , putting their lives in danger.

The Roman authority in making this edict divided the Christian community as a result of this crisis once again shows his intransigence. Those who have yielded to the demands of Decius and participated in supplication - the  [ [ lapsed]]  - are very badly received by the "resistant" when the time comes reintegration. The bishops who "sin" are mostly forgiven but refused to see a return to their function. The persecution caused such a crisis in the African Church that the Council of Carthage offers, 256 , rename mongers so they revert pure. He faces there violently to the Bishop of Rome that this double baptism is simply inconceivable as it de- lend credibility and unique sacred rite of the bishop. (  See also [ [ Donatism]] )

After a brief period of calm, persecutions begin again in 257 under the leadership of [ [ Valerian]]. The Roman senator, close elites hostile to Christianity , employs a new tactic to weaken the Christians. He decided to cut the Christian elite base. Provincial governors have orders to banish any bishop or cleric who refuses to indulge in sacrificial rites. And [ [ Cyprian of Carthage]], a major figure of African Christianity is put in exile ; others are condemned to the mines. Bloody persecution becomes a year later when Cyprien and other clergy, victims of the new Roman measures are condemned to death and beheaded.

It was not until the death of Valerian in 260 peace reigns again in Africa. His son [ [ Galen]] was much more conciliatory : it stops lawsuits against Christians and promulgate a [ [ Edict of Toleration]] which begins the period of the [ [ Peace Church | small peace of the Church]]. This peaceful coexistence allows the African Church to grow in the provinces and to increase the number of his followersSelon Claude Lepelley, le christianisme occidental latin est né en Afrique du Nord. Au milieu du IIe siècle, les communautés chrétiennes y étaient déjà très nombreuses et dynamiques. Au IVe siècle, l'Afrique vit la naissance de Augustin d'Hippone, père de l'Église dont la pensée devait avoir une influence déterminante sur le christianisme au Moyen Âge et à l'époque moderne.

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Roman Coloniae in Berber Africa

Roman Coloniae in Berber Africa are the cities -populated by Roman citizens- created in western northern Africa by the Roman Empire mainly from Augustus to Trajan.

Characteristics
Since the second half of the first century before Christ and as a result of increasing communities of Roman citizens living in the North African centers, Rome started to create "Coloniae" (colonies of Roman citizens) in Berber Africa.

History
Julius Caesar undertook a vast program of new city developments. He started projecting the creation of the colony "Concordia Iulia Karthago", where 3,000 colonists settled on its vast territory (called 'pertica'), as a rebirth of the destroyed old Cathago. He also founded other colonies, all with a port: Clupea (actual Qlbia), Curubis (Korba), Carpi (Mraisa) and Neapolis (Nabeul), and probably also in Diarrhytus Hippo (Biserta). After his death and during triunmviral period, Lepidus gave the status of municipality to Thabraca (Tabarca), while with Octavius, Utica became a Roman municipality (36 AD). The urban Policy of emperor Augustus was very intense and huge. In 29 AD he proceeded to colonize the coastal zone of berber north Africa. Augustus created the colony Iulia Sittianorum (actual Cirta) and also founded other eleven smaller colonies named: Thiburbo Minus, Hippo Diarrhytus, Maxula, Caspis, Clupea, Curubis, Neapolis, Thuburnica, Simitthu, Sicca and Assuras.

With the Flavian emperors the Roman Empire entered a new phase of urban developments. In 75 AD taking advantage of the legio III Augusta move to Theveste from Ammaedara, 40 miles west, the old legionary camp became the colony "Flavia Augusta Emerita Ammaedara". To enhance communication with Theveste was founded, on the route between this city and Hippo Regius, a colony of veterans in "Madauros", called colony "Flavia Augusta veteranorum Madauriensium". It was probably then that Hippo Regius, a municipality under Augustus, became colony. The presence of these military troops -more than 10,000 legionaries- was a supplementary stimulus to economic activities in the area and should not be neglected.

En el siglo II, en tiempos de Trajano, se llevó a cabo un nuevo avance colonizador hacia el oeste. La base de esos esfuerzos se localizó con el traslado del campo legionario de Theveste a Lambaesis (Lambesa), a 70 Km. al oeste. Para reforzar las zonas abandonadas por el ejército, Trajano erigió cerca de Ammaedara una nueva colonia, Thelepte, y más al sur, en el limes, el municipio de Capsa. Seguramente también Theveste debió pasar a ser entonces colonia, como también ocurrió con Hadrumetum y Leptis Minus. Junto al gran centro legionario de Lambaesis se creó la gran colonia romana de Thamugadi, mientras se reforzaban las ciudades de la costa otorgándoles la categoría colonial: Cuicul, Milev, Chullu y Rusicade, que formaban una confederación alrededor de Cirta. Algunas ciudades del África Proconsular gozaron de privilegios especiales, como la concesión del ius italicum, la exacción del impuesto territorial. Septimio Severo recompensó de esta manera a las principales ciudades de su tierra: Leptis Magna, Carthago y Utica.

In the second century, mainly under Trajan, was done a new westward advance in the colonization process. The basis of these efforts was located with the transfer of a legionary camp from Theveste to Lambaesis (actual Lambesa), 70 km further to the west. To reinforce the areas abandoned by the army, Trajan erected near Trajan Ammaedara a new colony, "Thelepte", and further south, in the African limes, the town of Capsa (actual Gafsa). Theveste surely become then a colony, as happened with "Hadrumetum" and "Leptis Minus". Along with the great legionary center of Lambaesis, the large Roman colony called Thamugadi was established. At the same time Trajan reinforced the coastal cities and granted the category of colonies to: Cuicul, Milev, Chullu and Rusicade, that formed a confederation near Cirta.

Indeed some cities in Africa Proconsular enjoyed special privileges, such as the granting of the "ius italicum", the exemption from the property tax levy. Septimius Severus (who was a romano-berber emperor) rewarded in this way around 220 AD the major cities of the land where he was born: Leptis Magna, Carthage and Utica.

No fue menos importante la actividad urbanizadora desarrollada en la costa oriental de la proconsular, en la Tripolitania. Lepcis Magna, en origen una ciudad dependiente de Carthago, que después pasó a control númida, para incorporarse con César a la proconsular en calidad de una civitas foederata, a la que Roma defendió entre el años 6 al 7 del ataque de los gétulos (campañas de Coso Cornelio Léntulo Getúlico); después pasó a municipio romano, para ser declarada colonia con Trajano. Otras ciudades destacadas del área fueron Sabratha y Oea. Antes de la anexión de las Mauritanias ya hubo colonización romana. Aprovechando el interregno Augusto fundó algunas colonias costeras (Igilgili, Saldae, Tubusuctu, Rusuzus, Rusguniae, Icosium –adscrita a Ilici en la Citerior- Aquae, Zucchabar, Cartennae, Tingis, Zulil –que dependía de la Bética-.Babba y Banasa. Otras tuvieron que esperar, al ser centros importantes de la administración del rey Juba II. Así ocurrió con la capital, Iol, después Caesarea, Volubilis, Lixus,Rusucurium del tiempo de Claudio.

Even in Roman Tripolitania was very important and huge the development of the urban policy done by the Roman Empire. Leptis Magna, originally a subsidiary of Carthago city, was declared a colony with Trajan. Other top area cities were Oea and Sabratha. Before the annexation of Mauritania, there was Roman colonization. Taking advantage of the interregnum Augustus founded some coastal colonies ( Igilgili, Saldae , Tubusuctu , Rusuzus , Rusguniae , Icosium - attached to Ilici in the Citerior-Aquae, Zucchabar, Cartennae, Tingis, Zulil, Babba and Banasa). Later were named coloniae even the capital, Iol, after called Caesarea, withVolubilis, Lixus, Siga, Sala, Tipasa and Rusucurium when Claudius was emperor.

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Gaerisa

Gaerisa or "Gerisa" was an ancient city of Roman Libya near the Limes Tripolitanus.

=History=

Even if there was a small local settlement, it was only when roman legionaries arrived in Tripolitania that the city of Gaerisa was created. Initially its population was mainly local berbers, but some roman merchants settled there during late Augustus times.

The Limes Tripolitanus was expanded under emperors Hadrian and Septimius Severus, in particular under the legatus Quintus Anicius Faustus in 197-201 AD.

Indeed Anicius Faustus was appointed legatus of the Legio III Augusta and built several defensive forts of the Limes Tripolitanus in Tripolitania, among which Garbia and Golaia (actual Bu Ngem) in order to protect the province from the raids of nomadic tribes. He fulfilled his task quickly and successfully.

As a consequence the Roman city of Gaerisa, situated away from the coast and south of Leptis Magna, developed quickly in a rich agricultural area Gaerisa became a "boom town" after 200 CE, when the Roman emperor Septimius Severus (born in Leptis Magna) had organized in a better way the Limes Tripolitanus.

Former soldiers were settled in this area, and the arid land was developed. Dams and cisterns were built in the Wadi Ghirza (then not dry like today) to regulate the flash floods. These structures are still visible: there it is among the ruins of Gaerisa a temple, which may have been dedicated to the Berber semi-god "Gurzil", and the name of the town itself may even be related to his name. The farmers produced cereals, figs, vines, olives, pulses, almonds, dates, and perhaps melons. Gaerisa consisted of some forty buildings, including six fortified farms (Centenaria). Two of them were really large. It was abandoned in the Middle Ages.

With Diocletian the limes was partially abandoned and the defense of the area was done even by the Limitanei, local soldier-farmers. The Limes survived as an effective protection until Byzantine times (Emperor Justinian restructured the Limes in 533 AD. After then Gaerisa fell in importance and slowly disappeared after the arab invasions of the late seventh century.

By the tenth century Gaerisa was totally forgotten and covered by sand. Only a few centuries later the area was repopulated and now -near the excavated ruins of Gaerisa- there it is a small town named "Ghirza".

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Septem (roman Ceuta)

"Septem (roman Ceuta)" was a roman colonia in Mauretania Tingitana, an ancient city that existed in what is now downtown of Ceuta.

Characteristics
Septem's location in the southern side of the Gibraltar Strait has made it an important commercial trade and military way-point for many cultures, beginning with the Carthaginians in the 5th century BC, who called the city Abyla. It was not until the Romans took control of the region in 42 AD that the port city, then named Septem Frates, assumed an almost exclusive military purpose. The city become a roman colonia with full rights for the citizens under emperor Claudius.

In the beginning of the first century, under Augustus the citizens of Septem used mainly the Phoenician language. Soon started the process of Romanization of the inhabitants. Consequently, most of the Septem population spoke latin in the fourth century, but there was a huge community of local romanised berbers. When the city fell to the Bizantines in the sixth century the greek was added to the latin as the official language.

Septem was an important Christian center since the fourth century (as recent discovered ruins of a Roman basilica show ), and consequently is the only place in the Maghreb where Roman heritage (represented by Christianity) has continuously been present and survived until our days.

History
It changed hands again approximately 400 years later, when Vandal tribes ousted the Romans in 426 AD according to historian Vilaverde. After being controlled by the Visigoths, it then became an outpost of the Byzantine Empire (called in Άβυλα).

Around 710 AD, as Muslim armies approached the city, its Byzantine governor, Julian (described as King of the Ghomara) changed his allegiance, and exhorted the Muslims to invade the Iberian Peninsula. Under the leadership of the Berber general Tariq ibn Ziyad, the Muslims used Ceuta as a staging ground for an assault on Visigothic Iberian Peninsula. After Julian's death, the Berbers took direct control of the city, which the indigenous Berber tribes resented. They destroyed Ceuta during the Kharijite rebellion led by Maysara al-Matghari in 740 AD.

Septem remained as a small village (populated even by a few Christians) nearly all in ruins until it was resettled in the 9th century by Mâjakas, chief of the Majkasa Berber tribe, who started the short-lived Banu Isam dynasty.

The episode of the martyrdom of, showed that Christians were still present in "Septa" (as was called in Arab) in the twelfth century: this Christian continuity remained in the outskirts of the city until the arrival of the Portuguese in the 1400s. Since then the city -renamed Ceuta- has remained in Christian hands (Portuguese and Spanish) and now has a majority of population speaking Spanish, a neolatin language.