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Crissinger.11 sandbox page WIKI PAGE EDIT Bird songs differ in many different ways and are considered to be a Geographical vocal variation in bird species that learn their songs and calls. Renditions of songs or “dialects” arise from neighboring populations that have a different song type.(P. Marler, M. Tamura 1962) These concepts of changes or adaptations in learned behaviors within a population are fundamentals of cultural evolution. Cultural transmission of songs can perpetuate a specific dialect of song form that has been learned from the previous generations.(P. Marler, M. Tamura 1964) There are a wide variety of dialects that rise quickly and then disappear and others who modify their songs in a very short time period.( J. Podos , P.S. Warren 2007) In an effort to produce further information on the effects of environmental impacts on the evolution of bird songs researchers conducted an experiment last 30 years monitoring the dialect changes in 3 geographic neighbors of zonotrichia luecophrys mutalli. This extensive study compiled recording from the areas for 30 years and compared the finding s. In the results the researchers found that the songs being sung in the late 1960’s where very dominate in their respective regions, however over the last 30 years the songs with a higher minimum frequency in their song proved to be winning out and increasing in frequency. Individuals from urban areas of low frequency ambient noise have had a sexual selection event leading toward the selection of a bird song that does not interfere with the ambient noise in the urban areas and is easily heard by potential mates. Researchers also found that migration of individuals from these urban areas introduced this dialect to more rural areas where its frequency also rose to higher levels than the original dialect. In the current ecological and cultural state the “Urban Dialect” has proven a higher fitness ratio in comparison to the rest. This shift in preferred dialect is one example which helps us shed light on the effects of how an individual in a population with a trait of higher selectivity can cause a drift event and introduces new alleles into a population the individual may not have previously had access to. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bird_vocalization&action=edit

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Effect of bird song on gene flow

Birds have undergone various selection processes pushing their evolutionary path in many different directions. The flow of genes throughout a population will play a pivotal role in the results of that evolutionary path. Many selection processes may take place throughout the history of an organism, but none more important than those which effect reproduction itself. For this study of Gene Flow in Various bird species, we will focus on the effects of secondary mating characteristics such as bird calls and songs. By comparing the variations in frequencies, environment, isolation, and sexual selection of various species and their mating songs and calls, we may better understand the evolution of the bird songs and their impact on the species in which they were derived. Researchers have found correlations between the frequencies of bird calls which may impact the fitness of individuals in the population based on the environment they live (Baptista, 2010). Bird songs differ in many ways and are considered to be a geographical vocal variation in bird species that learn their songs and calls. Renditions of songs or “dialects” arise from neighboring populations that have a different song type (Marler 1962). These concepts of changes or adaptations in learned behaviors within a population are fundamentals of cultural evolution. Cultural transmission of songs can perpetuate a specific dialect of song form that has been learned from the previous generations (Marler 1964). There are a wide variety of dialects that arise quickly and then disappear and others who modify their songs in a very short time period (Warren, 2007). In an effort to produce further information on the effects of environmental impacts on the evolution of bird songs researchers conducted an experiment that lasted thirty years monitoring the dialect changes in three geographic neighbors of Zonotrichia luecophrys mutalli. This extensive study compiled recording from the areas for thirty years and compared the findings. In the results the researchers found that the songs being sung in the late 1960’s where very dominate in their respective regions, however over the last thirty years the songs with a higher minimum frequency in their melody proved to be winning out and increasing in frequency. Individuals from urban areas of low frequency ambient noise have had a sexual selection event leading toward the selection of a bird song that does not interfere with the ambient noise in the urban areas and is easily heard by potential mates. Researchers also found that migration of individuals from these urban areas introduced this dialect to more rural areas where its frequency also rose to higher levels than the original dialect. In the current ecological and cultural state the “Urban Dialect” has proven a higher fitness ratio in comparison to the rest (Baptista, 2010) This shift in preferred dialect is one example which helps us shed light on the effects of how an individual in a small population with a trait of higher selectivity can cause a drift event and introduces new alleles into a population in a sympatric speciation event independent of known breeding outside the studied population. In some species the complexity of a song can signal to potential mates the health of the caller. Researchers have discovered a link between song complexity and the health of mates in population with a high frequency of parasitic infections (Garamszegi, 2003). Females in this population exerted their personal preference on which males to mate with based on the complexity of their songs which gave them some insight into the health of the caller. The males who were not experiencing the effects of the parasitic pathogen where much more exaggerated with the melodies of their songs in comparison with those individuals who were affected by the parasite. This study shows that pathogens in a population can have an effect on the sexual selection process. Other studies show very little divergence in the complexity of individual species songs.(Baker, 2006) Studies have been done to show the effect on bird songs when groups of birds from the same population where isolated from each other on separate islands. three groups of birds where moved to new habitats to observe the changes in songs in a smaller sample size. Two of the colonies were very similar in complexity but not as complex as the original population on the mainland. This lack of divergence may be due to a founder affect. The third population was found to be much more complex than the original mainland population. This population which shared a complex song may have arisen from strong sexual selection for the complex song trait. A different study that had a similar goal of determining the effects of isolation on bird song, found that younger populations of isolated species had a reduced variability in their songs. ( Parker, 2012) A lower number of sounds and more simple songs in the young populations show that a pattern of lineage can be obtained by tracking the divergences and unique sounds as a song evolves. One issue with using translocation techniques to isolate species is the effect the sample size while have in generating a founder effect. Taking a small number of random individuals from a large population and placing them into an isolated colony can produce a drift event because of the small sample size all the allele groups that would be present in the original population are not represented in the sample population. Studies like this one which use island isolation are a very important tool in research because we can limit the amount of gene flow that isolated species have and we can much more clearly see the speciation events that occur because of its independent evolution from the mainland populations. There are also very interesting species of birds, namely the black capped-chickadee which only has one song and throughout the population undergoes very little divergence. The biggest change to the “single song” repertoire of the chickadee is the change in frequency. (Horn, 1992). At dawn the male chickadees every so often change the frequency of their single song. The male chickadees are believed to have a variety of frequency ranges, the larger the number of neighbors the more frequencies the male chickadee will be able to recreate. The song frequencies are learned from the individual’s neighbors. This study is interesting because despite the influence of neighboring songs, the male chickadee does not ever change his song style or create a new song; instead he tries to out compete his neighbor by alternating between the frequencies of his neighbors and his own. This behavior could be considered intrasexual selection. The males are attempting to outperform each other by singing in a manner that would seem more attractive to a potential mate. This competition within the gender can be a strong selective pressure for speciation. Although the male chickadees have not evolved their mating song beyond the one song despite modifications to the frequency and rhythm for the sake of less competition amongst their reproductive rivals. By keeping the single mating song, it reduces the mating options of the females, which increases the probability that males within the population will have a fair chance of reproducing. The flow of genes between populations as we have discussed may be restricted by many different obstacles. We can see how the environment can shift the sexual selection to a more desirable frequency, which can reach fixation in optimal environments. Also how population isolation leads to allopatric speciation and also to gene shifts due to founder effects and the loss of rare alleles found in the original population.

Bibliography D Luther; L Baptista  2010,  “Urban noise and the cultural evolution of bird songs.” Biological sciences / The Royal Society; 277(1680): 469-73 László Zsolt Garamszegi; Anders Pape Møller; Johannes Erritzøe; R Poulin. 2003. “ The evolution of immune defense and song complexity in birds.” Evolution, v57: 905-912 )Marler P., Tamura.M. 1962 “Song “dialects” in three populations of white-crowned sparrows.” Condor 64, 368-377. Marler, P., Tamura. M. 1964. “ Culturally transmitted patterns of vocal behavior in sparrows.” Science 146, 1483-1486. Podos. J., Warren, P.S., 2007. “ The evolution of geographic variation in birdsong.” Adv. Study Behav. 37, 403-458. Myron c. Baker, Merrill S. A. Baker,  Laura M. Tilghman. 2006. “Differing effects of isolation on evolution of bird songs: examples from an island-mainland comparison of three species”. . Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 89, 331–342. Kevin A. Parker, Marti J Anderson, Peter F. Jenkins,Dianne H. Brunton. 2012. “The effects of translocation-induced isolation and fragmentation on the cultural evolution of bird song.”  Ecology Letter 15: 778–7 A. G. Horn, M. L. Leonard, L. Ratcliffe, S. A. Shackleton and R. G. Weisman. 1992. “Frequency Variation in Songs of Black-Capped Chickadees (Parus atricapillus)”. The Auk. Page 850 of 847-852

Crissinger.11 (talk) 23:32, 13 November 2014 (UTC) End of Final Paper

Checked for updates and comments on October 13th 2014. No comments were found on my "talk" topics or my addition to the wiki page Crissinger.11 (talk) 00:48, 14 October 2014 (UTC)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-capped_chickadee

3 talk topics It would be interesting to see some information on variations of vocalization among different population groups which have been geographically isolated from each other. Also the evolution of the Mating call, has it changed over time? is there any selection that takes place for one call length versus another length or frequency? if the call is uniform across all populations then is their another phenotypic trait that has a more desirable characteristic for a higher reproduction rate or fitness level such as color or spots?

1 addition Recent studies have shown that chickadees in an environment with ambient noise at the same frequencies as their songs have developed an evolutionary adaptation which enables them to adjust the frequency of their songs much quicker in order to effectively communicate with the surrounding population.

Citation

Goodwin, Sarah; Podos, Jeffery. February 2013. Shift of song frequinces in response to masking tones. Animal Behaviour. Vol. 85 Issue 2, p435-440. 6p. Goodwin and Podos tested the theory that over time populations may adapt to overcome environmental factors which may affect verbal communication. In this study black capped chickadees (Poecile atricapillus) song frequencies where studied and then tones where broadcasted within the frequency range to compete with the song as well as artificial broadcasts well outside of the range as a control frequency. Findings included that males where adjusting their frequency much quicker once introduced to the competing ambient noise. This study shows that the chickadee has developed a mechanism to increase the effectiveness of its verbal communication by altering the frequency of the songs.

Annotated bibliography Koch, Marcus A.; Scheriau, Charlotte; Betzin, Anja; Hohmann, Nora; Sharbel, Timothy F. June 2013. Evolution of cryptic gene pools in Hypericum perforatum: the influence of reproductive system and gene flow. Annals of Botany., Vol. 111 Issue 6, p1083-1094. 12p. In this paper by Koch and others investigate the evolutionary history and modes of reproduction of Hypericum and its sub species by studying quantitative and qualitative morphological variation,  genetic markers and the effect of ploidy variation. Key results: in this study wild diploid species where identified. In different species of Hypericum three different major gene pools were found. This study shows that a similar species that share a common lineage may express the same phenotypes while introducing new genetic variation into their respective gene pools.

Martin, Andrew; Echelle, Anthony; Zegers, Gerard; Baker, Sherri; Keeler-Foster, Connie. April 2012. Dramatic shifts in the gene pool of a managed population of an endangered species may be exacerbated by high genetic load. Conservation Genetics., Vol. 13 Issue 2, p349-358. In this paper Martin investigates the issue of C. diabolis and its ability to reproduce viable offspring, using loci markers to test genetic material for alleles. Martin and others compared genetic material from C. diabolis to closely related species from multiple locations and from samples taken in the past 17 years. A high number of alleles were found in C. diablos samples taken most recently compared to past samples. Alleles may be due to a genetic shift by an introduction of new genetic material into the gene pool. Higher number of dominant alleles or introduction of deleterious genetic material may have an impact on species propagation.

Xu, H. X.; Jing, T.; Tomooka, N.; Kaga, A.; Isemura, T.; Vaughan, D. A. September 2008. Genetic diversity of the azuki bean (Vigna angularis (Willd.) Ohwi & Ohashi) gene pool as assessed by SSR markers. Genome. Vol. 51 Issue 9, p728-738. 10p In this paper Xu and others studied SSR’s from various azuki beans which are commonly found in various geographical locations across Asia, in order to determine the most viable source of azuki bean germplasm. Beans from China, Japan and Korea where diverse and showed genetic differences. The beans from these regions also shared an isolated cultivation process. The azuki bean showed a wide diversity among the geographical cultivation locations.

TAO, XIAO-YUAN; XUE, XUE-YI; HUANG, YONG-PING; CHEN, XIAO-YA; MAO, YING-BO. Molecular. September 2012. Gossypol-enhanced P450 gene pool contributes to cotton bollworm tolerance to a pyrethroid insecticide. Ecology., Vol. 21 Issue 17, p4371-4385. 15p. In this paper Tao and others research the relationship of cotton bollworm and their natural resistance to deltamethrin and normal cotton phytotoxins. Researchers examined bollworm larvae and tested it for a specific enzyme which aids in the breakdown of certain pesticides. Researchers found that administering chemotoxins to the bollworm increased the amount of detoxifying agents in the insect, eventually making it resistant to the host plants normal toxins. This study shows how a species environment or food source can dictate which genes are carried on to the next generation.

Mrosovsky, N. . October 2006. Distorting Gene Pools by Conservation: Assessing the Case of Doomed Turtle Eggs. Environmental Management. Vol. 38 Issue 4, p523-531. 9p. In this paper Mrosovsky discusses the issue of human interference with the placement of sea turtle eggs. Humans have begun efforts in order to raise sea turtle numbers by repositioning nest sites in order to ensure a higher yield of offspring. By doing so humans are effectively increasing the yield of offspring but unintentionally enabling the sea turtle. The less than optimal practice of nest building near high tide levels increases the likelihood of nests being flooded and destroying the eggs. A Psychological and fundamental aspect of the reproductive cycle of sea turtles is being altered to maintain a species existence.