User:Cristina Mele/sandbox

Grounding in communication (or common ground) is a concept that has been proposed by Herbert H. Clark and Susan E. Brennan and that refers to the "mutual knowledge, mutual beliefs, and mutual assumptions" that are essential for communication between two people. Successful grounding in communication requires parties "to coordinate both the content and process." The concept is also common in philosophy of language.

Grounding in Conversation
Grounding in communication theory has described conversation as a form of collaborative action While grounding in communication theory has been applied to mediated communication, the theory primarily addresses face-to-face conversation. Groups working together will ground their conversations by coming up with common ground or mutual knowledge. The members will utilize this knowledge in order to contribute to a more efficient dialogue. Grounding criterion is the mutual belief between conversational partners that everyone involved has a clear enough understanding of the concept to move forward.

Clark and Schaefer (1989) found that, to reach this state of grounding criterion, groups use three methods of reaching an understanding that they can move forward.
 * 1) New Contribution: A partner moves forward with a new idea, and waits to see if their partner expresses confusion.
 * 2) Assertion of Acceptance: The partner receiving the information asserts that he understands by smiling, nodding, or verbally confirming the other partner.
 * 3) Request for Clarification: The partner receiving the information asks for clarification.

Phases in Grounding
The parties engaging in grounding exchange information over what they do or do not understand over the course of a communication and they will continue to clarify concepts until they have agreed on grounding criterion. There are generally two phases in grounding.
 * 1) Presenting utterance - speaker presents utterance to addressee
 * 2) Accepting utterance - addressee accepts utterance by providing evidence of understanding

According to this theory, mere utterance qualifies as presentation in conversation whereas contribution to conversation demands both utterance and assurance of mutual understanding.

The presentation phase can become complex when meanings are embedded or repairs are made to utterances. An example of a repair is "Do you and your husband have a car," but rather the messier, "now, - um do you and your husband have a j-car".

The acceptance phase often clarifies any ambiguities with grounding. For example:
 * Presentation phase:
 * Alan: Now, -um do you and your husband have a j-car
 * Acceptance phase:
 * Barbara: -have a car?
 * Alan: Yeah
 * Barbara: No

The acceptance phase is completed once Barbara indicates that the answer is "no" and Alan accepts it as a valid answer. The presentation phase can become complex when repairs are made to utterances. For example, "Do you and your husband have a car," but rather the messier, "now, - um do you and your husband have a j-car".

Evidence in Conversation
Grounding theory identifies three common types of evidence in conversation: 'acknowledgements, relevant next turn, and continued attention.

Acknowledgements refer to back channel modes of communication that affirm and validate the messages being communicated. Some examples of these include, "uh huh," "yeah," "really," and head nods that act as continuers. They are used to signal that a phrase has been understood and that the conversation can move on.

Relevant next turn refers to the initiation or invitation to respond between speakers, including verbal and nonverbal prompts for turn-taking in conversation. Questions and answers act as adjacency pairs, the first part of the conversation is relevant to the second part. Meaning that a relevant utterance needs to be made in response to the question in order for it to be excepted. For example:
 * Miss Dimple: Where can I get a hold of you?
 * Chico: I don't know, lady. You see, I'm very ticklish.
 * Miss Dimple: I mean, where do you live?
 * Chico: I live with my brother.

Chico is revealing that he he did not understand Miss Dimple's first question. She then corrects her phrase after realizing Chico's utterance wasn't an appropriate response and they continue to communicate with adjacent pairs.

Continued attention is the "mutual belief that addressees have correctly identified a referent." Partners involved in a conversation usually demonstrate this through eye gaze. One can capture their partner's gaze and attention by beginning an utterance. Attention that is undisturbed and not interrupted is an example of positive evidence of understanding. However, if one of the partners turns away or looks puzzled, these are signs that indicate there is no longer continued attention.

Anticipation of What a Partner Knows
There are three main factors that allow speakers to anticipate what a partner knows.
 * 1) Community co-membership: Members of a group with knowledge in a particular field could use technical jargon when communicating within the group, whereas communicating outside of the group would require them to use layman terms.
 * 2) Linguistic co-presence: A party in a conversation can use a pronoun to refer to someone previously mentioned in the conversation.
 * 3) Physical co-presence: If the other parties are also present physically, one could point to an object within their physical environment.

Shared visual information also aids anticipation of what a partner knows. For example, when responding to an instruction, performing the correct action without any verbal communication provides an indication of understanding, while performing the wrong action, or even failing to act, can signal misunderstanding. Findings from the paper, Using Visual Information for Grounding and Awareness in Collaborative Tasks,, supports previous experiments and show evidence that collaborative pairs perform quicker and more accurately when they share a common view of a workspace. In the experiment, there is a pair of worker and helper. The helper has a diagram formed by different shapes and colors, and would instruct the worker to form the same diagram on his terminal. Some helpers are able to see the terminal of the worker, some have a delayed visual of the terminal and some do not have any visual information. The results from the experiment showed that the pairs completed the task 30-40% faster when they were given shared visual information. The value of this information, however, depended on the features of the task. Its value increased when the task objects were linguistically complex and not part of the pairs‟ shared lexicon. However, even a small delay to the transmission of the visual information severely disrupted its value. Also, the ones accepting the instructions were seen to increase their spoken contribution when those giving the instructions do not have shared visual information. This increase in activity is due to the fact that it is easier for the former to produce the information rather than for the ones giving the instruction to continuously ask questions to anticipate their partners' understanding. Such a phenomenon is predicted by the grounding theory, where it is said that since communication costs are distributed among the partners, the result should shift to the method that would be the most efficient for the pair.

Least Collaborative Effort
The theory of least collaborative effort asserts that participants in a contribution try to minimise the total effort spent on that contribution – in both the presentation and acceptance phases. In exact, every participants in a conversation tries to minimise the total effort spent in that interactional encounter .Grounding theory challenges the theory of least collaborative effort on three accounts, particularly for a need to ground in communication. Time pressures, errors, and ignorance are problems that are best remedied by mutual understanding, thus the theory of grounding in communication dispels the theory of least collaborative effort in instances where grounding is the solution to a communication problem.
 * 1) Time Pressures: Parties will select more effortful means of communication when mutual understanding must occur within a fixed amount of time.
 * 2) Errors: Parties will select more effortful means of communication when the chance for error is high or previous low effort communications have resulted in error.
 * 3) Ignorance: Parties will engage in more effortful communication when a lack of shared knowledge is notable.

Choice of Medium
Clark and Brennan's theory acknowledges the impact of medium choice on successful grounding. According to the theory, computer mediated communication presents potential barriers to establishing mutual understanding. Grounding occurs by acknowledgement of understanding through verbal, nonverbal, formal, and informal acknowledgments, thus commuter mediated communications reduce the number of channels through which parties can establish grounding.

Media Constraints on Grounding
Clarke and Brennan identify eight constraints mediated communication places on communicating parties.
 * 1) Copresence: Otherwise known as colocation. Group members are in the same physical location. If group members are not able to share the same physical environment, they cannot use the ability to see and hear and interact with what their partner is interacting with, thus slowing down the grounding process.
 * 2) Visibility: Group Members can see each other. Though video-conferencing allows groups to see each others' faces, it does not allow groups to see what each other are doing like copresence does.
 * 3) Audibility: Groups can hear each other speaking. When groups are face-to-face they can take into account intonation and timing when coming to understandings or making decisions. Textual media like email and instant messages removes both of these aspects, and voice messages lack the timing aspect, thus making it difficult for the rest of the group to respond in a timely manner.
 * 4) Cotemporality: Group members are receiving information as it is produced by other group members. If a message is only received by one partner after a delay, their reaction to the message is also delayed. This damages efficiency since the partner may either mistakenly move forward in the wrong way or not be able to move on at all until they receive the message.
 * 5) Simultaneity: Group members are receiving and producing information at the same time. In copresent groups members can help the group come to grounding criterion by reacting when other members are speaking. For example, a member would make a statement and another would smile and nod while he spoke, thereby showing that and understanding has been made.
 * 6) Sequentiality: Group members are receiving information in a consecutive sequence; one piece of a task at a time. In distributed groups messages are often few and far between. A member could receive a message via email and then might review several other messages before returning to the original task.
 * 7) Reviewability: Group members can review information they previously received from other members. In face to face conversation group members might forget the details of what a teammate said, but when using technology like instant-messaging they can save and review what was said in a conversation at a later date.
 * 8) Revisability: Group members can review their own messages before imparting information to their fellow group members. Using technology like email or instant0messaging, group members can revise information to make it more clear before sending it to their fellow group members.

Situation Awareness
Situation Awareness Theory holds that visual information helps pairs assess the current state of the task and plan future actions. An example would be when a friend is solving a problem that you know the solution to, you could intervene and provide hints or instructions when you see that your friend is stuck and needs help. Similarly, the grounding theory maintains that visual information can support the conversations through evidence of common ground or mutual understanding. Using the same example, you could provide clearer instruction to the problem when you see that your friend is stuck. Therefore, an extension to both theories would mean that when groups have timely visual information, they would be able to monitor the situation and clarify instructions more efficiently.

Critisisms
The creation of a common set of mutual knowledge is an unobservable event which is hardly accesible to empirical research. Therefore it would be needed a god-like point of view to look into the participants' heads. To overcome this it is tried to model the common ground from one communication partner's perspective. Even so, it is difficult to distinguish between the concepts of grounding and situation awareness.