User:Cserlajos/Linguistics

This page is to develop the article History of the Hungarian language, as a little information is known in Wikipedia about the topic. <!-- Hungarian is a Finno-Ugric language with some 14 million speakers predominantly in Europe, and it is also present in North America as an immigrant language. The laguage is tipologically agglutinative: it uses prefixes, suffixes and affixes to determine the meaning, function and logical position.

The history of Hungarian begins approximately 3000 years ago, when – according to current scientific understanding – it separated from its closest relatives, the Ob-Ugric languages; this date puts it between the oldest languages of Europe.

Five periods of the language are distinguished: the first is the Proto-Hungarian period, when the language evolved into Hungarian; the second is the Old Hungarian period, dated to the Middle Ages; the third is Middle Hungarian, when the language generally became similar to its current form; the fourth is New Hungarian, when intended language reforms were performed; and the last, the fifth is Modern Hungarian, as it is spoken today. You may also view the derivative table of the language to understand its classification.

Before Hungarian (until 1000 BC)
The history of the Hungarian language begins with the Uralic era, in the Neolithic age, when the linguistic ancestors of all Uralic languages were living together, in the area of the Ural Mountains. Currently, the Uralic languages are understood as a language family which has no relations with other families; however, there were some attempts to link it with other families, such as the Indo-European languages, forming the Indo-Uralic superfamily.

Almost nothing certain is known about the Uralic peoples; however, their geographic situation, and the vocabulary of the descendant languages refer to a semi-settled population. They possibly were fishers and hunters. They also were acquainted with iron.

The following selected Modern Hungarian words might tell some about their way of living:

In the 4th millennium BC, the Uralic unity had disintegrated: the Samoyedic people moved eastwards, while the Finno-Ugrics moved westwards. There are many words which are traced back to Finno-Ugric origin in Hungarian, as linguists were not able to classify them as loanwords, and they are not present in the Samoyedic languages as well. This situation lasted until the 2nd millenium BC, when the Finno-Ugric languages split up to Finno-Permic and Ugric languages.

The speakers of Ugric languages moved westwards; they were living together approximately until 1000 BC, when the Hungarians separated from the Ob-Ugrics.

Historic proceedings
Around the year 1000 BC, the linguistic ancestors of the Hungarians had moved southwestwards from their preceding territories, the region west of the Ural Mountains, the eastern frontier of Europe; hence the Hungarian language separated from its closest relatives, the Ob-Ugric languages, a small group including the Mansi language and the Khanty language. The latter two languages separated only later, and their speakers were influenced by an Asian – possibly Western-Siberian – tribe, as the Mansies and Khanties had moved east.

The Hungarians gradually changed their way of living from settled hunters to nomadic cattle-raising. Their most important animals included sheep and cattle. There are no written resources on the era, thus only a little is known about it.

Early loanwords
There are some really early loanwords in Hungarian, which enriched the language's vocabulary, estimated to 25,000 words at the time. Here are some examples:

Historic proceedings
After a long journey, the Hungarians had settled the coastal region of the northeastern Black Sea, where they were significantly influenced by Turkish peoples, both genetically and linguistically. With the fell of Attila's empire, the Huns had receded to this area, and established their new state, which also ruled over the Hungarians. Maybe a memoir of this is a Hungarian myth: the sara of Hunor and Magor, who are said to be the common ancestors of the Huns and the Hungarians.

However, the Hunnish rule had not been long-lasting, as the Hungarians soon fell under Turk (Göktürks) rule. The Turk Empire flourished from the 6th century to the 8th century. It is highly feasible this is the time when the Hungarians first met the knowledge of writing, with the Göktürks' mediation. The latter used the Orkhon script or Turkic runic script, and reputedly the Old Hungarian script (rovásírás) is a parent writing system of it.

The Hungarians call themselves Magyars (pronunced like madyar). Their external name, Hungarian, derive from the Turkic word onugor, meaning "ten arrows", and referring to a tribal alliance. This name was spread by the Slavs later in Europe. The name Magyar once was the name of a Hungarian tribe, Megyer(i). It likely means "talking man" (compare Mansi mañši 'man').

The Hungarians also fell in contact with the Khazars. After the collapse of the latter's empire, Magyars lived as an independent nation, moving westwards. In 895/896, under the rulership of Prince Árpád, they had crossed the Carpathian Mountains, and settled the area of present-day Hungary. They also began to establish their own state here, namely the Principality of Hungary.

Loanwords
In the era of the Turkish influences, Hungarians developed especially culturally: the borrowed vocabulary consist of terms referring to sophisticated dressing, and the words of a learned upper class society. The phrases of basic literacy is also of Turkish origin.

Vowels
The phonetic system of Hungarian went through large changes in the Proto-Hungarian period. The most important change was the disappearance of word-ending vowels. Originally, Finno-Ugric words had ended with them; later, in many descendant languages, just like in Hungarian, they eroded. Finnish still preserves these sounds; see the table on the right. However, declined forms of the nouns and inflected verbs of Finno-Ugric origin still show traces of the lost sounds: hal (fish) – halas (rich in fish); kő (stone) – köves. This was the process of phonetic reduction.

Possibly there had been also present a velar "i¸" (e) sound as well, later replaced by a palatal i. Today, since Hungarian has vowel harmony, some words containing the palatal sound i pick up the back suffix when conjugated or declined – istead of the front suffix which is usual for is of other origin. Some examples: nyíl (arrow) → nyilat (accusative; insead of regular *nyilet); inni ([v inf], to drink) → ivás (drinking [n], instead of regular *ivés).

The transition from dipthongs to simple vowels already began in the Proto-Hungarian period.

Consonants
Stop consonants between vowels developed to spirants:

Grammar
The language developed its interesting features, the transitive and intransitive verb conjugations. (See Hungarian grammar (verbs).) Marked posessive relations appeared. The accusative marker -t was developed, as well as many verb tenses.

Historic proceedings
In 895/896, Hungarians – led by Prince Árpád – conquered the area of present-day Hungary and its neighbourhood. This is the place where Hungarians established their first real state. In its first period, between roughly 900 and 1000, it was simply a principality. Hungarian raids were common and devastating in Western Europe. In the Battle of Lechfeld (955), Hungarian troops lost; this, in fact, had not stopped them, buth it clearly interpreted something to the Hungarian leaders: they had to relate themselves to their neighbours. Thus, already in the 970s, Hungarian political leaders led Hungary on a way towards international recognition. Finally, in 1000, Vajk – the later Stephen I of Hungary – had got his crown from the Papal State, and the history of the Christian Kingdom of Hungary began.

The Latin language was made official in the country – especially in the 11th to 15th centuries, the language of literature and religion was Latin. However, Hungarian was used in certain cases; sometimes it was fitted into Latin documents, to avoid later disputes about proprietary rights.

Though, the first official document of Hungary is not in Latin, but in Greek - this is the "Charter of the nouns of Veszprémvölgy", dated to 997. The text contain some Hungarian (and also some Slavic) place names: (compound formed from  'shaft' + an obsolete Turkic loanword,  'coalition' – today Szárberény);  'plough';  (from meleg 'warm' +  -di dimunitive suffix); and so on.

The next most important document is the "Establishing charter of the abbey of Tihany", dated to 1055. In the Latin text, 3 Hungarian sentences, 58 words, and 33 suffixes are present. The longest sentence is "" (original transcript: feheruuaru rea meneh hodu utu rea; English: 'up to the military road going to Fehérvár). Today, the vellum is kept in the archabbey of Pannonhalma. Skipping intermediate Hungarian relics, the next important point is the "Funeral Sermon and Prayer", from 1192. This is the first completely Hungarian text. The document is located on the 154th page of the Codex Pray (Pray here is not English; it is a name). The sermon begins with the words "" – "Do you see, my friends, what we are: truly, whe are only dust and ash."

Literature in Hungarian is counted since the previous writing. The first known Hungarian poem has the title 'Laments of Mary' – its theme is the story of Jesus' crucifixion, by the viewpoint of Mary. It was denoted around 1300, but possibly it is not the first version – its text is clear, easy to understand and logical, free of latinisms. The first verse:

The next important relic – with a cheerless history – is the "Fragment of Königsberg", dated approximately to the 1350s. This is the remain of the first known, explicitly proven Hungarian book. The codex had arrived at Wrocław, Poland by the end of the century; there, because of it was not understandable to the Polish bookbinder, it was chopped and used to bind a Latin book. The other important book from the time is the Codex Jókay; a 15th century copy of the original from 1372. The codex is about the life of Francis of Assisi. In the early 1400s, some not comprehensive Latin-Hungarian dictionaries – or rather word listings – were composed. Some shorter texts are also known. Regardless of these, the most important work is the first translation of the Bible: this is the Hussite Bible, dated to 1430. The Bible was translated by Tamás Pécsi and Bálint Ujlaki; both were priests. They were affected by the concepts of Jan Hus during their university years (1399-1411) in Prague. The Inquisition pursued these concepts, and the translation was confiscated from the translators; anyway, it became such popular that there are several authentic copies of the original.

More and more Hungarian books were written; most of them is religious. Over and above the "Laments of Mary", the other important item of Old Hungarian poetry is the "Fight of Šabac". Reputedly it was denoted in the year of the battle (1476); in this, Hungarian troops led by King Matthias of Hungary had a glorious victory over the Ottoman army – its issue is secular. Possibly it is a fragment of a longer poem. A quotation:

In the 1490s, Hungarian was spoken by about 3.2 million people; this number was fairly high at the time. The first examples of official and legal use are dated back to these years. Some personal letters and wills are known. Nevertheless, the Ottoman Empire put pressure on neighbouring nations, just like on Hungary – the latter was unstable at the time, due to internal lordship debates. This lead to that Hungarians (led by Louis II of Hungary) lost the Battle of Mohács (1526). In 1541, Ottomans finally captured the capital, Buda as well. The country was split up to three parts; the southern regions fell under Ottoman rule; the western parts officially remained "Kingdom of Hungary", with Habsburg kings; and the eastern area, mainly Transylvania and the Partium became independent.

Some Old Hungarian script inscriptions are also known, such as the "Alphabet of Nikolsburg" (1483) and a number of deciphered and undeciphered inscriptions. Historic linguists put the end of the Old Hungarian period to 1526, as it is a such important date in Hungarian history.

Vocabulary
In the period, Hungarian developed several new words. One way of this was loaning words: are coming from those languages, whose speakers mediated the new concepts. (See the next section.) On the other hand, internal word forming also took place, when the words for new concepts are derived from earlier words.

Old Hungarian was rich – especially compared to Modern Hungarian – in derivative suffixes. Most of these suffixes are also derived from other suffixes; so, they can be aligned in "suffix-bushes".

There were numerous dimunitive suffixes, which are unknown in today's Hungarian: -d ("", from "" – "tiny hill"); -t (it left its trace in some geographic names) -n, -ny, -m (as in kicsiny, from kicsi – very little), and so on.

Forming compounds was also a way to coin new terms.

But then again, there are several loanwords dated back to the period between 896-1526. Loans were mainly performed from the Slavic languages (for example, 'king'), German (e. g. like  'prince'), and Latin (e. g.,  'church'). Like it emerges from the previous examples, these words are primarily associated with Christianity and politics. Other loans are name of animals living outside Hungary, terms of technology, and so on.

Grammar
Verbs Like English, Modern Hungarian has two verb tenses: past and nonpast. Futurity is expressed using the auxiliary verb. However, Old Hungarian had six verb tenses: Past Narrative (Latin: praeteritum), Past Finite, Past Complex, Present, Future Simple, and Future Complex.

Past Narrative was marked using the suffixes -é, -á in transitive and -e, -é in intransitive. The tense was used to describe an array of past events originally. The verb várni 'to wait' conjugated in this tense:

Past Finite is still used in Modern Hungarian as well. It is marked using -t and -tt, just like in Old Hungarian. See Hungarian grammar (verbs).

Past Complex was roughly equivalent to Modern English Past Perfect: in certain sentences, which already contained a Past Finite or Past Narrative verb, it was used to mark a preceding event, such as in the next sentence:
 * Elmentem vala a templomba, és meghallgattam a szentbeszédet.
 * Went.I had church.to, and listened.I the sermon. ACCUSATIVE .
 * ''I had gone to the church, and I listened the sermon.

Thus, Past Complex was conjugated in the following way: the verb in Past Finite or in Present + the auxiliary verb vala. Conjugation example with vár 'wait', using the verb in Past Finite:

Future Simple was expressed using the suffix -nd. Future Complex (the present-day Future tense of the language) is conjugated in the following way:


 * Infinitive + auxilary verb 'fog'
 * menni fog - he/she is going to go


 * See also: Hungarian grammar (verbs).

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Historic proceedings
The happenings of the 1530s and 1540s brought a new situtation to the country: the time of Humanism – which only a few decades earlier, under Matthias of Hungary flurished – was over; the population, both in villages and towns, was terrorized by Ottoman raids; the majority of the country was lost; and the remainder began to feel the problems of the new Habsburg rule. This predicament caused backwardness in the cultural life as well.

However, Hungary, with the previously listed great territorial and human losses, soon entered into a new cultural era, the Protestant Reformation. This religious movement heartened many authors to find new ways. Cultural life was primarily based in Trasylvania, but Royal Hungary also saw the rebirth of the Hungarian culture.

The first printed Hungarian book was printed in Cracow, Poland, in 1533. It is a partial Bible-translation, containing the letters of Saint Paul. The translation was done by Benedek Komjáti. The New Testament's first printed edition was published by János Sylvester (1541). He also composed the first scientific analysis of the Hungarian language, in 1539 – his work's title is "Grammatica Hungarolatina". Like Komjáti, Sylvester printed his works in Cracow.

The previous publications, however, were not Protestant in their sense; the first directly reformed Hungarian book was Imre Ozorai's "Argument", published in Cracow first in 1535 and second in 1546.

Among other works, Aesop's Fables – a collection of moral short stories – were first translated into Hungarian by Gábor Pesti (1536). These are the first denoted Hungarian short stories. The first attempt to standardize Hungarian was done by Mátyás Bíró Dévai. He proposed a logical and feasible orthograpy to the language. His book, called "Orthographia", is known from its second edition, printed in 1549.

Bálint Balassa

Old Hungarian
Hungarian Latiatuc feleym zumtuchel mic vogmuc. yſa pur eſ chomuv uogmuc. Menyi miloſtben terumteve eleve miv iſemucut adamut. eſ odutta vola neki paradiſumut hazoa. Eſ mend paradiſumben uolov gimilcictul munda neki elnie. Heon tilutoa wt ig fa gimilce tvl. Ge mundoa neki meret nu eneyc. yſa ki nopun emdul oz gimilſtwl. halalnec halalaal holz. Hadlaua choltat terumteve iſtentul. ge feledeve. Engede urdung intetvinec. eſ evec oz tiluvt gimilſtwl. es oz gimilſben halalut evec. Eſ oz gimilſnek vvl keſeruv uola vize. hug turchucat mige zocoztia vola. Num heon muga nec. ge mend w foianec halalut evec. Horogu vec iſten. eſ veteve wt ez munkaſ vilagbele. eſ levn halalnec eſ poculnec feze. eſ mend w nemenec. Kic ozvc. miv vogmuc. English Do you see, my friends, with your eyes, what we are: truly, we are dust and ash. How much of grace in he (God) created our ancestor, Adam. And he was told to live on every fruit of the Paradise. Whilst he (God) forbid him from the fruit of one tree. He told him why he can not eat from it: "truly, on the day when you eat from the fruit, you will die with the death of death." He had heard about his death from the creator God, but he forgot it. He gave way to the allure of Evil. And he ate from the forbidden fruit. And in this fruit, he ate his death. And the fruit's juice was so bitter that it broke away their throats. Not only for himself, but for the whole of his race he ate death. God had been infuriated, and he dropped him into this back-breaking world. And the nest of death and hell arrived. And for the whole race of he. Who are they? We are they. – Quoted from the Funeral Sermon and Prayer, 1192.

Middle Hungarian
 Hungarian III. fabula. Az egeröl Bekarol es Heiarol. EGY eger futos vala a' patak mellet, es eremeſt altal ment volna á vizen: de nemlehete. Talaluan egy bekat á parton tanachot kert töle, mikeppen altal mehetne á vizen. A beka veuen egy fonalat, megkötte az egernek á labat az ö labahoz, monduan: Vly á hatamra, es en altal viſzlek: tarch kemenyen magadat. Midön hatara ült volna a beka, beſzekelek á vizbe es úſzni kezde. De midön á közepin volna, be kezde merülni a vizbe es az egeret vtanna vonni fenek fele. [...] English 3rd fable. About the mouse, the frog and the hawk. A mouse was running along the brook, and wanted to cross the water directly: but it could not. As it had found a frog on the bank, he asked the frog how it could cross the water. The frog had brought a twist, and said: "Sit on my back, and I will take you across: keep yourself strongly." When it had sat on the frog's back, the frog entered the water and began to swim. But when it was at the center, began to sink in the water and to pull the mouse behind it towards the bottom. [...] – Quoted from: Gáspár Heltai: Szaz fabvla. Kolozsvár, 1566.

Reference works

 * Molnár József – Simon Györgyi: Magyar nyelvemlékek. 3rd edition, Tankönyvkiadó, Budapest, 1980.
 * Dr. Inczefi Géza: A magyar nyelv fejlődéstörténete. Typescript. Tankönyvkiadó, Budapest, 1969.
 * Gáspár Heltai: Száz fabvla. Heltai Press, Kolozsvár, 1566.
 * A magyar középkor története. Pannonica, 2006.
 * Péter Ruffy: Bujdosó nyelvemlékeink. Móra Publishing, 1977.