User:Cummin98/Fuel cell

Note for the reviewer: underlined words are my work.

 Social Implications 

The fuel cell still must navigate an array of technological barriers, some of which are likely to require years of study and development to overcome. Yet with time, fuel cells have the potential to become a technology and energy resource that usable and accessible to everyone when used in conjunction with other energy tech. Fuel cells are primarily used to provide power to material handling in warehouses, distribution centers, and manufacturing facilities, which are mostly owned by private companies. With time, fuel cells are projected to be usable for all of humanity’s energy needs. But, due to the lack of funding, access is somewhat limited. This fact is rather unfortunate—it can be concluded that this energy does not reach lower-income communities. Even in the face of this obstacle, however, there are a few current developments that make a clear attempt to be inclusive. For example, there are handicap accessible hybrid vehicles for people with disabilities to use, for example, a wheelchair accessible zero emission bus.

Buses
As of August 2011, there were about 100 fuel cell buses in service around the world. Most of these were manufactured by UTC Power, Toyota, Ballard, Hydrogenics, and Proton Motor. UTC buses had driven more than 970,000 km (600,000 mi) by 2011. Fuel cell buses have from 39% to 141% higher fuel economy than diesel buses and natural gas buses.

As of 2019, the NREL was evaluating several current and planned fuel cell bus projects in the U.S.

Airplanes
In 2003, the world's first propeller-driven airplane to be powered entirely by a fuel cell was flown. The fuel cell was a stack design that allowed the fuel cell to be integrated with the plane's aerodynamic surfaces. Fuel cell-powered unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) include a Horizon fuel cell UAV that set the record distance flown for a small UAV in 2007. Boeing researchers and industry partners throughout Europe conducted experimental flight tests in February 2008 of a manned airplane powered only by a fuel cell and lightweight batteries. The fuel cell demonstrator airplane, as it was called, used a proton-exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell/lithium-ion battery hybrid system to power an electric motor, which was coupled to a conventional propeller.

In 2009, the Naval Research Laboratory's (NRL's) Ion Tiger utilized a hydrogen-powered fuel cell and flew for 23 hours and 17 minutes. Fuel cells are also being tested and considered to provide auxiliary power in aircraft, replacing fossil fuel generators that were previously used to start the engines and power on board electrical needs, while reducing carbon emissions. In 2016 a Raptor E1 drone made a successful test flight using a fuel cell that was lighter than the lithium-ion battery it replaced. The flight lasted 10 minutes at an altitude of 80 m, although the fuel cell reportedly had enough fuel to fly for two hours. The fuel was contained in approximately 100 solid 1 cm2 pellets composed of a proprietary chemical within an unpressurized cartridge. The pellets are physically robust and operate at temperatures as warm as 50 C. The cell was from Arcola Energy.

Lockheed Martin Skunk Works Stalker is an electric UAV powered by solid oxide fuel cell.

Boats
The Zemship, a small passenger ship, was created in 2003 with a hybrid system. They were produced until 2013. These ships used a 100 kW Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) with 7 lead gel batteries. With these systems, alongside 12 storage tanks, fuel cells provided a energy capacity of 560 V and 234 Kwh.

In Hamburg, Germany, the FCS Alsterwasser was named and revealed in 2008. It is considered one of the first passenger ships powered by fuel cells and can service 100 passengers at a time. The hybrid fuel cell technology that powered this ship was produced in Germany by Proton Motor Fuel Cell GmbH.

The Nemo H2 is a passenger ship produced in Amsterdam. With their hybrid fuel cell system and 6 storage tanks, the integrated batteries produce between 30 to 50 kW each. It has been in operation since 2009.

In 2012, the Hornblower Hybrid was created. It utilizes a diesel generator, batteries, photovoltaics, wind power, and fuel cells for energy.

In Bristol, a 12 passenger hybrid ferry was produced and named Hydrogenesis. It has been in operation since 2012.

In 2010, the MF Vågen was produced to utilize 12 Kw fuel cells and 2-to-3-kilogram metal hydride hydrogen storage. It also utilizes 25kwh lithium batteries and a 10 kw DC motor.

The SF-BREEZE is a two motor boat that utilizes 41 x 120 Kw fuel cells. With a type C storage tank, the pressurized vessel can maintain 1200kg of LH2. These ships are still in operation today. 

In Norway, the first ferry powered by fuel cells running on liquid hydrogen is scheduled for its first test drives in December 2022.

The Type 212 submarines of the German and Italian navies use fuel cells to remain submerged for weeks without the need to surface.

The U212A is a non-nuclear submarine developed by German naval shipyard Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft. The system consists of nine PEM fuel cells, providing between 30 kW and 50 kW each. The ship is silent, giving it an advantage in the detection of other submarines. A naval paper has theorized about the possibility of a nuclear-fuel cell hybrid whereby the fuel cell is used when silent operations are required and then replenished from the Nuclear reactor (and water).

 Snowmobiles 

The Lynx HySnow snowmobile, powered by hydrogen cells, was introduced as a flagship project in 2020 in Austria by the BRP company also known as Rotax. This snowmobile was created with the goal of decarbonizing winter tourism and was funded by the Austrian Climate and Energy Fund. Two prototypes were developed and presented to the public at the FIS Ski World Cup 2020 in Hinterstoder, Austria. Their designs were created with the goal of low temperature while maintaining high performance and thus adapted Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEM-FC) systems for this purpose. Benefits to this system were advertised during development, such as high power, drivability, lack of noise emission, and lack of pollutants.  

Research and development

 * 2005: Georgia Institute of Technology researchers used triazole to raise the operating temperature of PEM fuel cells from below 100 °C to over 125 °C, claiming this will require less carbon-monoxide purification of the hydrogen fuel.
 * 2008: Monash University, Melbourne used PEDOT as a cathode.
 * 2009: Researchers at the University of Dayton, in Ohio, showed that arrays of vertically grown carbon nanotubes could be used as the catalyst in fuel cells. The same year, a nickel bisdiphosphine-based catalyst for fuel cells was demonstrated.
 * 2013: British firm ACAL Energy developed a fuel cell that it said can run for 10,000 hours in simulated driving conditions. It asserted that the cost of fuel cell construction can be reduced to $40/kW (roughly $9,000 for 300 HP).
 * 2014: Researchers in Imperial College London developed a new method for regeneration of hydrogen sulfide contaminated PEFCs. They recovered 95–100% of the original performance of a hydrogen sulfide contaminated PEFC. They were successful in rejuvenating a SO2 contaminated PEFC too. This regeneration method is applicable to multiple cell stacks.
 * 2019: U.S. Army Research Laboratory researchers developed a two part in-situ hydrogen generation fuel cell, one part for hydrogen generation and the other for electric power generation through an internal hydrogen/air power plant.
 * 2022: Researchers from University of Delaware developed a hydrogen powered fuel cell that is projected to function at lower costs, operating at roughly $1.4/kW. This design removes carbon dioxide from the air feed of hydroxide exchange membrane fuel cells.