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Dao Daoism:


 * Introduction to Daoism", Columbia University, Education for Educators


 * Dao", Britannica


 * Daoist Philosophy Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy




 * Daoism", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy


 * Daoism, Asia Society


 * "Daoism," Minnesota Libraries, World Religions


 * "Daoism Glossary Terms," Harvard University, Pluralism Project


 * “Philosophical Daoism", Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy,


 * Daoism and Daoist Art", Metropolitan Museum of Art




 * Alan Chan, “Daoism,” Oxford Bibliographies, https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199920082/obo-9780199920082-0046.xml


 * The term “Daoism” or “Taoism” denotes one of the major religions of China. In some sources it also designates an intellectual tradition represented chiefly by the early Chinese thinkers Laozi and Zhuangzi. Daoism derives its name from the concept of Dao, usually translated into English as Way.



Four Great Classic Novels

Extensive listing of novels, brief descriptions, and translations (if any).



Prominent full-length novels of the late Ming or early Qing also include The Three Sui Quash the Demons' Revolt  (Sān suì píng yāo chuán)  Investiture of the Gods (Fengshen Yanyi),  Xingshi Yinyuan Zhuan   (Marriage Destinies to Awaken the World) These novels were succeeded in the mid and late Qing by sequels, such as A Supplement to the Journey to the West (Xiyou bu);, Dong Yue   (b. 1620–d. 1686) in 1640, the delightful yet profound sixteen-chapter novel Xiyou bu (The tower of myriad mirrors; A supplement to Xiyou ji, 1641) Prayer Mat of Flesh (Rou buduan), Li Ruzhen's Flowers in the Mirror Jinghua yuan  1828), Novels continued to be written in the classical language through the end of the dynasty and well into the twentieth century, such as Liu E's Laocan Youji

Classic Chinese Novels or  the Six Classic Novels are the Four Ming Classic Novels, that is,  Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Journey to the West, Water Margin  and The Plum in the Golden Vase, plus two  Qing dynasty novels, Dream of the Red Chamber (Story of the Stone) and The Scholars  These are among the world's longest and oldest novels.

The scholar C. T. Hsia wrote that "they remain the most beloved novels among the Chinese." The literary scholar C.T. Hsia wrote that these six titles are "historically the most important landmarks" of the novels of China.

The terms "classic novels", says scholar Andrew Plaks, is a "neologism of twentieth-century scholarship" that seems to have come into common use under the influence of Hsia's 1968 study,Classic Chinese Novel. Paul Ropp agrees that "an almost universal consensus affirms six works as truly great".

Several terms refer to the novels and various subgroupings of them. Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Journey to the West, Water Margin, and Dream of the Red Chamber are commonly grouped as the Four Great Classic Novels. Another term used is Classical Novels.

Before the composition of The Scholars and the Dream of the Red Chamber,

Because of its explicit descriptions of sex, Jin Ping Mei was banned for most of its existence. Despite this, Lu Xun, like many if not most scholars and writers, place it among the top Chinese novels.

The first four were sometimes referred to as the Four Great Masterworks or Four Ming Masterworks.

In chronological order, they are:

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Modern Chinese trace their origins back to one of the world's early civilizations in the fertile basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. The semi-legendary Xia dynasty in the 21st century BCE and the well-attested Shang and Zhou dynasties developed among a wide set of local cultures. A bureaucratic political system developed to serve hereditary monarchies, or dynasties and the Hundred Schools of Thought debated the relation of state, family, and individual. In 221 BCE, Qin's wars of unification finally created the first Chinese empire, the short-lived Qin dynasty. The more stable Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) established a model for nearly two millennia in which the Chinese empire was one of the world's foremost economic powers. The empire expanded, fractured and re-unified, was conquered, absorbed foreign religions and ideas, invented new forms of government, and made world-leading scientific advances, such as Four Great Inventions, gunpowder, paper, the compass, and printing. After centuries of disunion after the fall of the Han, the Tang dynasty (618-907) achieved what the Roman Empire could not: reunification of the empire. The multi-ethnic Tang welcomed trade and culture that came over the Silk Road and adapted Buddhism to Chinese needs. The early modern Song dynasty (960-1279) became increasingly urban and commercial. The civilian scholar-official or literati used the examination system and the doctrines of Neo-Confucianism to replace the military aristocrats of earlier dynasties. The Mongol invasion established the Yuan dynasty in 1279, but the Ming dynasty(1368-1644) re-established Han Chinese control. The Manchu-led Qing dynasty nearly doubled the empire's territory and established a multi-ethnic state that was the basis of the modern Chinese nation, but suffered heavy losses to foreign imperialism in the 19th century.

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The Chinese monarchy collapsed in 1912 with the Xinhai Revolution, when the Republic of China (ROC) replaced the Qing dynasty. Japan invaded China in 1937, starting the Second Sino-Japanese War and temporarily halting the civil war between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Kuomintang. The surrender and expulsion of Japanese forces from China in 1945 left a power vacuum in the country, which led to renewed fighting between the CCP and the Kuomintang. The civil war ended in 1949 with the division of Chinese territory; the CCP established the People's Republic of China on the mainland while the Kuomintang-led ROC government retreated to the island of Taiwan. Both claim to be the sole legitimate government of China, although the United Nations has recognized the PRC as the sole representation since 1971. From 1959 to 1961, the PRC implemented an economic and social campaign called the Great Leap Forward that resulted in an estimated 15 to 55 million deaths, mostly through starvation. China conducted a series of economic reforms since 1978, and entered into the World Trade Organization in 2001.

Some 2,000 years of Chinese monarchy ended with the collapse of the Qing and the Xinhai Revolution of 1911. The establishment of the Republic of China (ROC) in 1912, however, was followed by a period of disentegration until the Kuomintang (Nationalist) government reunified the country in 1928. The civil war between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), founded in 1921, and the Kuomintang was interrupted by the 1937 outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945). The renewed fighting that followed Japanese surrender in 1945 ended in 1949 with the establishment of the People's Republic of China on the mainland and the retreat of the ROC government to the island of Taiwan. Both governments claim to be the sole legitimate government of China, although the United Nations has recognized the PRC as the sole representation since 1971. The PRC's Great Leap Forward (1959-1961) resulted in an estimated 15 to 55 million deaths, mostly through starvation, and the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) disrupted the country. A series of economic reforms on the mainland, starting in 1978, led to a period of growth and political stability, while Taiwan became one of the Four Asian Tigers of prosperity and democracy. The PRC entered the World Trade Organization in 2001.

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The history of the Republic of China begins after the Qing dynasty in 1912, when the formation of the Republic of China as a constitutional republic put an end to 2,000 years of imperial rule. The Republic experienced many trials and tribulations after its founding which included being dominated by elements as disparate as warlord generals and foreign powers.

In 1928, the Republic was nominally unified under the Kuomintang (KMT; also called "Chinese Nationalist Party") after the Northern Expedition, and was in the early stages of industrialization and modernization when it was caught in the conflicts involving the Kuomintang government, the Communist Party of China (founded in 1921), local warlords, and the Empire of Japan. Most nation-building efforts were stopped during the full-scale Second Sino-Japanese War against Japan from 1937 to 1945, and later the widening gap between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party made a coalition government impossible, causing the resumption of the Chinese Civil War, in 1946, shortly after the Japanese surrender to the Allied Powers in September 1945.

A series of political, economic and military missteps led to the KMT's defeat and its retreat to Taiwan (formerly "Formosa") in 1949, where it established an authoritarian one-party state continuing under Generalissimo/President Chiang Kai-shek. This state considered itself to be the continuing sole legitimate ruler of all of China, referring to the communist government or "regime" as illegitimate, a so-called "People's Republic of China" (PRC) declared in Beijing (Peking) by Mao Zedong in 1949, as "mainland China", "Communist China, or "Red China". The Republic of China was supported for many years — even decades — by many nations, especially the United States who established a 1954 Mutual Defense treaty. After political liberalization began in the late 1960s, the PRC was able — after a constant yearly campaign in the United Nations — to finally get approval in 1971 to take the seat for "China" in the General Assembly, and more importantly, be seated as one of the five permanent members of the Security Council. After recovering from this shock of rejection by its former allies and liberalization in the late 1970s from the Nationalist authoritarian government and following the death of Chiang Kai-shek, the Republic of China has transformed itself into a multiparty, representative democracy on Taiwan and given more representation to those native Taiwanese, whose ancestors predate the 1949 mainland evacuation.

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WHAT ABOUTISM
Wiktionary
 * whataboutism



Ivan Franceschini, Nicholas Loubere, "What About Whataboutism?," Made in China (2020): https://madeinchinajournal.com/2020/07/07/what-about-whataboutism/

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The Opium Wars were two wars in the mid-19th century fought between Great Britain and the Qing dynasty of China. The occasion of the First Opium War was the Qing attempt to stop the importation of opium into China by seizing stocks of the drug from British merchants at of and concerned their imposition of trade of [[opium upon China. The resulting concession of Hong Kong compromised China's territorial sovereignty. The clashes included the First Opium War (1839–1842), with the British naval forces, and in the Second Opium War (1856–1860), also known as the Arrow or Anglo-French Wars to the Chinese, Britain was aided by French forces. The wars and subsequently imposed treaties weakened the Qing dynasty and Chinese governments, and forced China to open specified Treaty ports (especially Shanghai and Canton) that handled all trade with imperial powers.  Around this time China's economy also contracted slightly, but the sizable Taiping Rebellion and Dungan Revolt had a much larger effect.  [3]

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Melville's writings did not attract the attention of women's Studies scholars of the 1970s and 1980s, though his preference for sea-going tales that involved almost only males has since then been of interest to scholars in men's studies and especially gay and queer studies.

Herman Melville (born Melvill; August 1, 1819 – September 28, 1891) was an American novelist, short story writer and poet of the American Renaissance period. Among his best-known works are his magnum opus, Moby-Dick (1851), and Typee (1846), a romantic account of his experiences of Polynesian life.

Melville was born in New York City, the third child of a merchant. Typee, his first book, was followed by a sequel, Omoo (1847). Both were successful and they gave him the financial basis to marry Elizabeth "Lizzie" Shaw, a daughter of a prominent Boston family. His first novel not based on his own experiences, Mardi (1849), was not well received. His next fictional work, Redburn (1849), and his non-fiction White-Jacket (1850) were given better reviews but did not provide financial security.

Moby-Dick (1851), although now considered one of the great American novels, was initially not well received by contemporary critics. His psychological novel, Pierre: or, The Ambiguities (1852) was also scorned by reviewers. From 1853 to 1856, Melville published short fiction in magazines, which was collected in 1856 as The Piazza Tales. In 1857, he traveled to England and then toured the Near East, and that same year published his last work of prose, The Confidence-Man (1857). He moved to New York in 1863 to take a position as Customs Inspector and turned to poetry. Battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War (1866) was his poetic reflection on the moral questions of the American Civil War. In an emotionally jarring incident for Melville in 1867, his eldest child Malcolm died at home from a self-inflicted gunshot.

Within ten years of his son's death, Melville's metaphysical epic Clarel: A Poem and Pilgrimage in the Holy Land was published in 1876. In 1886, his other son Stanwix died of apparent tuberculosis, and Melville retired. During his last years, he privately published two volumes of poetry, left one volume unpublished, and returned to prose of the sea. The novella Billy Budd was left unfinished at his death but was published posthumously in 1924. Melville died from cardiovascular disease in 1891. The centennial of his birth in 1919 became the starting point of the Melville revival, with critics rediscovering his work and his major novels starting to be recognized as world classics of prominent importance in contemporary world literature. pp.691-692

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Herman Melville (August 1, 1819 – September 28, 1891) was an American novelist, short story writer, and poet of the American Renaissance period. His best known works include Typee (1846), a romantic account of his experiences in Polynesian life, and his whaling novel Moby-Dick (1851). His work was almost forgotten during his last 30 years. His writing draws on his experience at sea as a common sailor, exploration of literature and philosophy, and engagement in the contradictions of American society in a period of rapid change. He developed a complex, baroque style; the vocabulary is rich and original, a strong sense of rhythm infuses the elaborate sentences, the imagery is often mystical or ironic, and the abundance of allusion extends to biblical scripture, myth, philosophy, literature, and the visual arts. Melville was born in New York City, the third child of a merchant in French dry goods and his wife. His formal education ended abruptly after his father died in 1832, as this left the family in financial straits. He briefly became a schoolteacher before he took to sea in 1839 as a sailor on a merchant ship. In 1840, he signed aboard the whaler Acushnet for his first whaling voyage but jumped ship in the Marquesas Islands. He returned to Boston in 1844 after further adventures.

His first book was Typee (1846), a highly romanticized account of his life among Polynesians. It became such a best-seller that he wrote the sequel Omoo (1847). These successes gave him the financial basis to marry Elizabeth Shaw, daughter of a prominent Boston family, but the success proved hard to sustain. His first novel that was not based on his own experiences was Mardi (1849), a sea narrative that develops into a philosophical allegory—but it was not well received. He received warmer reviews for Redburn (1849), a story of life on a merchant ship, and his 1850 description of the harsh life aboard a man-of-war in White-Jacket, but they did not provide financial security. In August 1850, Melville moved his growing family to Arrowhead, a farm in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, where he established a profound but short-lived friendship with Nathaniel Hawthorne, to whom he dedicated Moby-Dick. This novel was another commercial failure, published to mixed reviews. Melville's career as a popular author effectively ended with the cool reception of Pierre (1852), in part a satirical portrait of the literary culture at the time. His Revolutionary War novel Israel Potter appeared in 1855.

From 1853 to 1856, Melville published short fiction in magazines, most notably "Bartleby, the Scrivener" (1853), "The Encantadas" (1854), and "Benito Cereno" (1855). These and three other stories were collected in 1856 as The Piazza Tales. In 1857, he traveled to England where he reunited with Hawthorne for the first time since 1852, and then toured the Near East. The Confidence-Man (1857) was the last prose work that he published. He moved to New York to take a position as Customs Inspector and turned to poetry. Battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War (1866) was his poetic reflection on the moral questions of the American Civil War.

In 1867, his oldest child Malcolm died at home from a self-inflicted gunshot. Clarel: A Poem and Pilgrimage in the Holy Land was published in 1876, a metaphysical epic. In 1886, his son Stanwix died, and Melville retired. During his last years, he privately published two volumes of poetry, left one volume unpublished, and returned to prose of the sea. The novella Billy Budd was left unfinished at his death but was published in 1924. Melville's death from cardiovascular disease in 1891 subdued a reviving interest in his work. The 1919 centennial of his birth became the starting point of the "Melville Revival". Critics discovered his work, scholars explored his life; his major novels and stories have come to be considered world classics, and his poetry has gradually gained respect.



agrarian law
Article 1 of the Agrarian Reform Law of 1950 provided that the "land ownership system of feudal exploitation by the landlord class shall be abolished and the system of peasant land ownership shall be introduced in order to set free the rural productive forces, develop agricultural production, and thus pave the way for new China’s industrialisation." Their land, draft animals, tools, and surplus grain should be confiscated, along with that of shrines, temples, churches, and schools, but not their other property nor the land owned and cultivated by rich peasants. Peasant councils were to distribute the confiscated land and property to poor peasants, but landlords were to have an equal share so that they could make a living and reform themselves through labor.