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Paraphaeosphaeria minitans is a fungal. Under its more commonly known synonym Coniothyrium minitans, it has been used as a biocontrol agent against various Sclerotinia sp. including plant pathogenic Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Ram et al., 2018).(need to find article)

Taxonomy
The species epithet of minitans is derived from the Latin word minitor meaning threatening.

Coniothyrium minitans was initially published by mycologist William A. Campbell in 1947,

Then in 2004 it was renamed Paraconiothyrium minitans, before it was renamed Paraphaeosphaeria minitans in 2014. Although it is often still commonly referred to as Coniothyrium minitans. Coniothyrium minitans is also called the homotypic synonym of Paraconiothyrium minitans.

History
Coniothyrium minitans was originally isolated from plant pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum sclerotia (a compact mass of hardened fungal mycelium containing the food reserves) that was colonizing potato stems in Scotland in the United Kingdom.

Coniothyrium minitans (synonym: Paraconiothyrium minitans [Verkley et al. 2004], ) is an effective biocontrol agent of one of the most destructive soilborne plant pathogens, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Budge et al. 1995; Jones and Stewart 2000; Zeng et al. 2012). C. minitans is an ecologically obligate mycoparasite that is highly efficient in colonizing S. sclerotiorum sclerotia with little effect on the surrounding microbial populations (Whipps and Gerlagh 1992; Whipps et al. 2008). C. minitans can significantly reduce sclerotial inoculum and, also, inhibit the production of apothecia (Jones et al. 2004).

It is congeneric with Paraphaeosphaeria sporulosa, a worldwide soilborne fungus with biocontrol abililty.

It can parasitize the sclerotia of Sclerotinia spp. and produce anti-fungal substances that inhibit host growth.

Biocontrol agent
Various potential mycoparasites of S. sclerotiorum sclerotia were tested to determine their efficacy as bio-control agents of that species. Coniothyrium minitans was tested because it had been observed that when it was abundant in the phyllosphere of oilseed rape, S. sclerotiorum was suppressed (Whipps et al. 1993a). In fact, among several potential antagonists, C. minitans and Trichoderma virens were the most active (Whipps and Budge 1990). C. minitans is the most successful agent against Sclerotinia species (Whipps and Gerlagh 1992; Lewis et al. 1995), however, because it attacks the sclerotia and also can grow inside the hyphae and thus follow the host into plant tissue (Huang and Hoes 1976; Huang 1978; (N E E D ) Trutmann et al. 1982; Phillips and Price 1983; Tu 1984; Huang and Kokko 1988; Whipps and Gerlagh 1992; Whipps et al. 1993).

The strain C. minitans S. sclerotiorum   and C. minitans has been used extensively to control sclerotinia diseases of several vegetable crops (Ashraf and Zuhaib 2013; Sun et al. 2017).

Despite the successful development of C. minitans as a biocontrol agent for commercial applications, various biological and environmental factors are known to affect its efficacy and consistency (Nicot et al. 2019; Whipps et al. 2008; Zhao et al. 2020). Abiotic factors such as temperature, pH, light, and water potential are known to affect key biological attributes such as spore germination, hyphal extension, and pycnidial production in C. minitans isolates. This can impact the efficacy of C. minitans to successfully colonize and degrade the sclerotia of the host S. sclerotiorum (Jones et al. 2011; McQuilken et al. 1997).

Paraphaeosphaeria minitans, which is distributed worldwide, is a pathogen of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum a plant pathogen fungus that can cause a disease called 'white mold'. It is used as a commercial biocontrol agent for sclerotinia stem rot. Applications of Coniothyrium minitans are recommended to occur three months before S. sclerotiorum development and be incorporated into the soil. Correct use of Coniothyrium minitans can reduce S. sclerotiorum by 95% and sclerotinia stem rot 10 to 70%. It can be also used to attack Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in sunflowers, and lettuce.

The mycoparasitic fungus Paraphaeosphaeria minitans (formerly Coniothyrium minitans), is increasingly used by farmers to reduce soilborne inoculum of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. In France,

biological control of ''Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in (witloof) chicory culture.

Efficiency of isolates of Coniothyrium minitans as mycoparasites of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Sclerotium cepivorum and Botrytis cinerea on tomato stem pieces.

Particularly intense studies were conducted with the parasitic fungus Coniothyrium minitans (Huang and Hoes 1976; Turner and Tribe 1976; McQuilken et al. 1995; Zeng et al. 2012b).

It penetrates into the target pest by making small pores or lacerate the surface of target pest by producing enzymes like chitinase, and glucanase then, breaches into the sub-cortex and medulla producing fruiting bodies and causes the pest cells to shrink due to osmosis. This fungus is used to protect economically viable crops like oil seeds, celery, beans ([Phaseolus vulgaris]] ), peas, lettuce etc.

lettuce drop, also affecting glasshouse lettuce, caused by Sclerotinia minor, eight fungal isolates (Trichoderma hamatum, Trichoderma virens, Coniothyrium minitans, Clonostachys rosea and Trichoderma rossicum were evaluated. Commercial formulations of both C. minitans and T. hamatum applied as transplant treatments, solid substrate soil amendments or as a spore drench gave consistent disease control and are currently being developed further.

stem rot of rapeseed (Brassica napus),

It also grows well on media such as on potato dextrose agar (PDA) and wheat kernel and forms pycnidia. The pycnidia are initially white, and darken with time. Conidia are dispersed with water droplets from the pycnidia. C. minitans synthesizes melanin, which accumulates on the pycnidia, conidia, and the aging hyphae, lending a dark appearance to the entire mature colony. Fungi require melanin to tolerate environmental stress, such as UV irradiation and presence of oxidants.

Biological control of clover rot on red clover (a green manure crop). and Sclerotinia trifoliorum, the causal agent of clover rot.

Target plants for treatment with C. minitans are high value crops as peanuts, sunflowers, lettuce, cucumber, beans and oilseed rape (EFSA 2016).

By spraying a C. minitans spore suspension on bean plants during blooming, the incidence of white mold was reduced by 56% (Huang et al. 2000). Also, incorporation of C. minitans in the top soil before planting of soybean reduced the disease severity index (DSI) by 68% and the number of sclerotia in the soil by 95.3% (Zeng et al. 2012a).

Effectiveness of Coniothyrium minitans and Trichoderma atroviride in suppression of sclerotinia blossom blight of alfalfa.

control in bean and pea crops.

C. minitans produces a broad range of cell wall-degrading enzymes such as chitinases and glucanases as well as secondary metabolites like macrosphelide A, benzofuranones and chromanes (Tomprefa et al. 2011).

mycoparasites of S. sclerotiorum

The hyperparasite penetrated the walls of the rind cells by means of physical pressure and destroyed the cell contents. Penetration of medullary hyphae was by enzymic lysis and physical pressure; there was evidence to suggest that the hyperparasite may coil around the host cells before inserting infection hyphae.

Coniothyrium minitans is a sclerotial parasite of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and its related species, including Sclerotinia minor, Sclerotinia cepivorum, and Sclerotinia trifoliorum.

Management of sclerotinia blight of peanut with the biological control agent Coniothyrium minitans.

commercial products of C. minitans have been developed.

It is sold under the registered name Contans® (Coniothyrium minitans).

Coniothyrium minitans has also been used to parasitize the sclerotia of several Sclerotinia species, including Sclerotina cepivorum (whipps and ger 1992) and some Botrytis species. PCR has been used to identify isolates from the mycoparasite to be used as biological agents. soil borne fungus

Among them, Gliocladium virens and C. minitans have shown practical potential for biological control of S. sclerotiorum (Fernando et al., 2004).

Coniothyrium minitans is a mycoparasite of Sclerotinia spp. and certain species in other related genera (Campbell, 1947; Li et al., 2006), and it parasitizes both the hypha and sclerotia of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. C. minitans has been proved to be able to control Sclerotinia based rots of vegetable crops, stem rot of rapeseed (Brassica napus), and head rot of sunflower (Huang, 1981; Whipps and Gerlagh, 1992). C. minitans has been developed as a commercial biological agent and been widely used in the United States, European Union, and in China. C. minitans is a coelomycete, which grows on sclerotia, and produces pycnidia with numerous conidia on or in the sclerotia (Whipps et al., 2008). It also grows well on media such as on potato dextrose agar (PDA) and wheat kernel and forms pycnidia. The pycnidia are initially white, and darken with time. Conidia are dispersed with water droplets from the pycnidia. C. minitans synthesizes melanin, which accumulates on the pycnidia, conidia, and the aging hyphae, lending a dark appearance to the entire mature colony. C. minitans does not form an appressorium for penetrating the host hypha of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum.

Disruption of heat shock factor 1 reduces the formation of conidia and thermotolerance in the mycoparasitic fungus Coniothyrium minitans.

The genome, and transcriptome sequencing of Coniothyrium minitans was recorded in 2020.

A total of 11 437 predicted genes and proteins were annotated, and 30.8 % of the blast hits matched proteins encoded by another member of the Pleosporales, Paraphaeosphaeria sporulosa, a worldwide soilborne fungus with biocontrol ability.

Degradation of oxalic acid by the mycoparasite Coniothyrium minitans plays an important role in interacting with Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Susceptibility of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum strains different in oxalate production to infection by the mycoparasite Coniothyrium minitans.

Coniothyrium minitans was transformed with the hygromycin B resistance gene to improve the infection rates of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum.

Strains of the fungus has been studied for potential for inoculum production in liquid culture.

Compatibility of Coniothyrium minitans with compound fertilizer in suppression of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

Separation of the metabolic products of Coniothyrium minitans against rice infecting bacteria Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae.

Distribution
C. minitans has been isolated from soil samples from 11 countries for the first time, bringing the world occurrence to 29 countries in total, on all continents except South America. The list includes Canada, Iran, Egypt, China, Australia, New Zealand.

Other sources

 * Bitsadze N., Siebold M., Koopmann B., von Tiedemann A., 2015. Single and combined colonization of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum sclerotia by the fungal mycoparasites Coniothyrium minitans and Microsphaeropsis ochracea. Plant Pathol 64: 690-700.


 * Cheng, J. S., Jiang, D. H., Yi, X. H., Fu, Y. P., Li, G. Q., & Whipps, J. M. (2003). Production, survival and efficacy of Coniothyrium minitans conidia produced in shaken liquid culture. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 227, 127–131.


 * Dahiya, J. S., Singh, D., & Nigam, P. (1998). Characterisation of laccase produced by Coniothyrium minitans. Journal of Basic Microbiology, 38, 349–359.


 * Giczey G., Kerenyi Z., Fulop L., Hornok L. Expression of cmg1, an Exo- -1,3-glucanase gene from Coniothyrium minitans, increases during sclerotial parasitism. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2001;67:865–871. doi: 10.1128/AEM.67.2.865-871.2001.


 * Gerlagh M., Goossen-van de Geijn H.M., Fokkema N.J., Vereijken P.F.G. Long-Term biosanitation by application of Coniothyrium minitans on Sclerotinia sclerotiorum infected crops. Phytopathology. 1999;89:141–147. doi: 10.1094/PHYTO.1999.89.2.141.


 * Jones D., Johnson R.P.C. Ultra-structure of frozen, fractured and etched pycnidiospores of Coniothyrium minitans. Transactions Brit. Mycol. Soc. 1970;55:83–IN9. doi: 10.1016/S0007-1536(70)80098-5.


 * Jones, E. E., Stewart, A., & Whipps, J. M. (2003b). Use of Coniothyrium minitans transformed with the hygromycin B resistance gene to study survival and infection of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum sclerotia in soil. Mycological Research, 107, 267–276.


 * Jones E., Mead A., Whipps J. (2004) Effect of inoculum type and timing of application of Coniothyrium minitans on Sclerotinia sclerotiorum: control of sclerotinia disease in glasshouse lettuce. Plant Pathology 53:611–620


 * Kaur, J., Munshi, G. D., Singh, R. S., & Koch, E. (2005). Effect of carbon source on production of lytic enzymes by the sclerotial parasites Trichoderma atroviride and Coniothyrium minitans. Journal of Phytopathology, 153, 274–279.


 * Lu, Z. X., Laroche, A., & Huang, H. C. (2004). Segregation patterns for integration and expression of Coniothyrium minitans xylanase gene in Arabidopsis thaliana transformants. Botanical Bulletin of Academia Sinica, 45, 23–31.


 * McQuilken, M.P., Gemmell, J., Hill K.A, Whipps J.M., Production of macrosphelide A by the mycoparasite Coniothyrium minitans. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, Volume 219, 2003, 27–31.


 * Smith, S.N., Chohan, R., Armstrong, R.A. and Whipps, J.M. (1998) Hydrophobicity and surface electrostatic charge of conidia of the mycoparasite Coniothyrium minitans. Mycol. Res. 102, 243–249.


 * Smith, S.N., Armstrong, R.A., Barker, M., Bird, R.A., Chohan, R., Hartell, N.A. and Whipps, J.M. (1999) Determination of Coniothyrium minitans conidial and germling lectin avidity by flow cytometry and digital microscopy. Mycol. Res. 103, 1533–1539.


 * Wei, W., Zhu, W., Cheng, J., Xie, J., Li, B., Jiang, D., et al. (2016). Nox complex signal and MAPK cascade pathway are cross-linked and essential for pathogenicity and conidiation of mycoparasite Coniothyrium minitans. Sci. Rep. 6:24325. doi: 10.1038/srep24325


 * Zeng F, Gong X, Hamid MI, Fu Y, Jiatao X, et al. A fungal cell wall integrity-associated MAP kinase cascade in Coniothyrium minitans is required for conidiation and mycoparasitism. Fungal Genet. Biol. 2012;49:347–357. doi: 10.1016/j.fgb.2012.02.008.


 * Zeng L-M, Zhang J., Han Y-C, Yang L., Wu M-de, et al. Degradation of oxalic acid by the mycoparasite Coniothyrium minitans plays an important role in interacting with Sclerotinia sclerotiorum . Environ. Microbiol. 2014;16:2591–2610. doi: 10.1111/1462-2920.12409.


 * Zhao H., Zhou T., Xie J., Cheng J., Jiang D., Fu Y., Host Transcriptional Response of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Induced by the Mycoparasite Coniothyrium minitans. Front Microbiol. 2020 Feb 11;11:183. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00183. PMID: 32117180

;Category:Fungal plant pathogens and diseases ;Category:Soybean diseases ;Category:Fungi described in 2014