User:DavidLeopold1/Urban forestry

Brazil
The amazon rainforest is world famous for its ability to sequester carbon from our atmosphere. Since the 1960's, cities were integrally linked with their surrounding forest in the Brazilian Amazonia. Modern urbanization has degraded natural ecosystems, depleting ecosystem services that are vital to city functioning. Invasive species seem to be a large issue in Brazilian urban forest conservation. Exotic and invasive species are more common than native in 29 amazonian urban forests. 34.7% of all identified species are invasive, while 65.3% were native. Urban forest development and management in Brazil is supported by legislation. The 2012 Brazilian Forest code states that city halls can require green areas in residential allotments, commercial property, and in public infrastructure.

Japan
In recent years, there has been significant national effort to deploy urban reforestation research initiatives in Japanese metropolitan areas. The current research evaluates tree count, species richness, and carbon sequestration capacity. The Tokyo area has planted 420,563 trees bordering 2,712 kilometers of streets. In 4,177 ha of urban parks in Tokyo, there are over 1.5 million trees planted. The urban forest in Tokyo is managed by the Japan Greenery Research and Development Center Foundation since 1973.

History:

The first planting of camphor trees alongside rural roads is estimated to be around the 3rd Century (AD). The first record of government policy ordering roadside tree planting was in 759 AD. Cherry, willow, and Japanese pagoda trees were planted adjacent Kyoto streets by the 9th century. In the Ginza area, cherry and pine trees were planted along sidewalks 5 meters apart in 1873. The growth of these trees, however, was unhealthy, so they were replaced with Shidareyanagi willow trees in 1880. Japanese maple was also one of the most popularly planted species. In 1907, the city of Tokyo did a massive urban planting of the most healthy and dependable street trees that had survived. Historically, the ginkgo was first a widely successful and popular street tree in Tokyo, which is why the tree is now planted along streets and in parks around the world.

In the late 60's, street trees were used to solve urban environmental issues, such as air and noise pollution.The Tokyo Olympic Games also gave a the government a valid reason to plant more trees in the city. There were 12,000 street trees planted in Tokyo by 1965. The species composition of street trees changed dramatically from 1980 to 1996. Dogwood, cherry, and Japanese zelkova trees skyrocketed in popularity and were extensively planted. There were 420,564 street trees planted in Tokyo by 1997.

India

The majority of Indian cities excluding Chandigarh and Canhinagar, have very low urban forest availability per capita compared to U.S., Australian, and European cities. There are, however, strong urban forestation initiatives in New Delhi, the capital of India. Currently, 20% of landcover in Delhi is green space. The parks and garden society is newly in charge of urban forestry initiatives. Two biodiversity parks and nine city forests have been constructed in Delhi, and there are still nine more city forests in the planning process. Roads in Dehli are identified by trees species planted beside them (e.g. Vigyan path with Toona ciliata). Tree planting is promoted in the Gujarat state through association with religious practices in numerous belief systems. In the Puranas (religious Hindu text), each planet, constellation, and zodiac has its own preferred tree. Planting these trees is said to benefit human life and luck. In Gandhinagar city, six ha of land is planted with trees acknowledging these religious beliefs. It is a dedicated space for giving life and love to the trees for health and prosperity of the forest.

The Kerwa Forest Area
A case study performed on the Kerwa Forest Area, 10 km from the city of Bhopal, India, evaluated the effects of human impact and capacity of ecosystems services. Bhopal's swift urbanization has negatively impacted ecosystems in the Kerfa Forest Area. Due to human impacts, there were very few ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation, that were evident enough to be measured in the study. The forest is still able to filter stormwater and provide stable drinking water supplies for Bhopal city residents. 40% of Bhopal citizens rely on Upper Lake, a reservoir that sits in a region of the Kerfa Forest, for drinking water. Forest degradation has increased runoff from the Kerwa Forest Area, which alters water quality in the lake. Direct overland flow transports excess nutrients from adjacent agricultural fields to the lake, which causes eutrophication and reduces lake biodiversity. The Kerfa Forest Area is under critical environmental stress and supplies ecosystem services necessary to the health and wellbeing of Bhopal residents.

Carbon Sequestration Potential
Native tree species in India have a large potential for carbon sequestration in urban areas with high greenhouse gas concentrations. A highly productive species T. grandis can sequester more carbon in less time than other native trees. Planting T grandis in areas undergoing rapid urbanization can act as carbon sinks for excess carbon dioxide emissions. A mix of native species, however, is often ecologically more valuable and will provide more ecosystem services.

Expand on Wildlife Impacts section
There has been sufficient research on how protected areas