User:Ddso004/Culture of Microalgae in Hatcheries

Microalgae or microscopic algae grow in either marine or freshwater systems. They are primary producers in the oceans that convert water and carbon dioxide to biomass and oxygen in the presence of sunlight Through this process of photosynthesis, microalgae contribute approximately 70% of oxygen to the Earth’s atmosphere. Some species of microalgae can also fix nitrogen to a form which makes it easily accessible for cells. Further, being primary producers, microalgae are a food source for higher trophic levels in marine food webs such as small bottom dwelling organisms and organisms in the water column.

Classification of microalgae is complicated because certain forms have animal as well as plant-like characteristics; similarly, some colourful strains have colourless counterparts. Some of the main types of microalgae are cyanobacteria or blue green algae which are unicellular microorganisms, rhodophytes (red algae), chlorophytes (green algae), xanthophytes (yellow-green algae), chrysophytes (yellow-brown algae) and phaeophytes (brown algae). However, basing microalgal classification on colour alone can create problems since there are several variations between certain strains.

The oldest documented use of microalgae was 2000 years ago, when the Chinese used the cyanobacteria Nostoc as a food source during a famine. Another type of microalgae was the cyanobacteria Arthospira, was a common food source among populations in Chad and Aztecs in Mexico as far back as the 16th century. Today microalgal production is central to a range of commercial applications, highlighting the need for production techniques to enhance productivity along with being economically feasible.

Hatchery Production Techniques
A range of microalgae species are produced in hatcheries and are used in a variety of ways for commercial purposes. Studies have estimated main factors in the success of a microalgae hatchery system as the dimensions of the container/bioreactor where microalgae is cultured, exposure to light/irradiation and concentration of cells within the reactor.

Open Pond System
This method has been employed since the 1950s. There are two main advantages of culturing microalgae using the open pond system. Firstly, an open pond system is easier to build and operate. Secondly, open ponds are cheaper than closed bioreactors because closed bioreactors require a cooling system. However, a downside to using open pond systems is decreased productivity of certain commercially important strains such as Spirulina sp., where optimal growth is limited by temperature. Although cheaper and easy to build/operate, open pond systems are not widely used because factors such as evaporation, optimal growth temperature and protection from the environment are difficult to maintain.

Air-lift Method
This method is used in outdoor cultivation and production of microalgae; where air is moved within a system in order to circulate water where microalgae is growing. The culture is grown in transparent tubes that lie horizontally on the ground and are connected by a network of pipes. Air is passed through the tube such that air escapes from the end that rests inside the reactor that contains the culture and creates an effect like stirring.

Closed Reactors
The biggest advantage of culturing microalgae within a closed system provides control over the physical, chemical and biological environment of the culture. This means factors that are difficult to control in open pond systems such as evaporation, temperature gradients and protection from ambient contamination make closed reactors favoured over open systems. Photobioreactos are the primary example of a closed system where abiotic factors can be controlled for. Several closed systems have been tested to date for the purposes of culturing microalgae, few important ones are mentioned below:

Horizontal Photobioreactors
This system includes tubes laid on the ground to form a network of loops. Mixing of microalgal suspended culture occurs through a pump that raises the culture vertically at timed intervals into a photobioreactor. Studies have found pulsed mixing at intervals produces better results than the use of continuous mixing. Photobioreactors have also been associated with better production than open pond systems as they can maintain better temperature gradients. An example noted in higher production of Spirulina sp. used as a dietary supplement was attributed to higher productivity because of a better suited temperature range and an extended cultivation period over summer months.

Vertical Systems
These reactors use vertical polyethylene sleeves hung from an iron frame. Glass tubes can also be used alternatively. Microalgae are also cultured in vertical alveolar panels (VAP) that are a type of photobioreactor. This photobioreactor is characterised by low productivity. However, this problem can be overcome by modifying the surface area to volume ratio; where a higher ratio can increase productivity. Mixing and deoxygenation are drawbacks of this system and can be addressed by bubbling air continuously at a mean flow rate. The two main types of vertical photobioreactors are the Flow-through VAP and the Bubble Column VAP.

Flat Plate Reactors
Flat plate reactors(FPR) are built using narrow panels and are placed horizontally to maximise sunlight input to the system. The concept behind FPR is to increase the surface area to volume ratio such that sunlight is efficiently used. This system of microalgae culture was originally thought to be expensive and incapable of circulating the culture. Therefore, FPRs were considered to be unfeasible overall for the commercial production of microalgae. However, an experimental FPR system in the 1980s used circulation within the culture from a gas exchange unit across horizontal panels. This overcomes issues of circulation and provides an advantage of an open gas transfer unit that reduces oxygen build up. Examples of successful use of FPRs can be seen in the production of Nannochloropsis sp. used for its high levels of astaxanthin.

Fermentor-type Reactors
Fermentor-type reactors (FTR) are bioreactors where fermentation is carried out. FTRs have not developed hugely in the cultivation of microalgae and pose a disadvantage in the surface area to volume ratio and a decreased efficiency in utilizing sunlight. FTR have been developed using a combination of sun and artificial light have lead to lowering production costs. However, information available on large scale counterparts to the laboratory-scale systems being developed is very limited. The main advantage is that extrinsic factors i.e. light can be controlled for and productivity can be enhanced so that FTR can become an alternative for products for the pharmaceutical industry.

Aquaculture
Microalgae is an important source of nutrition and is used widely in aquaculture, either directly or as an added source of basic nutrients. Aquaculture farms rearing larvae of molluscs, echinoderms, crustaceans and fish use microalgae as a source of nutrition. Low bacteria and high microalgal biomass is a crucial food source for shellfish aquaculture. Indirect application of microalgae culture can be seen through brine shrimp (Artemia sp.) production in hatcheries. Microalgae is an important food source for growth of Artemia, which in turn can be used as a food supply for finfish, shrimp or crab hatcheries. Other applications of microalgae within aquaculture are associated with increasing the aesthetic appeal of finfish bred in captivity. One such example can be noted in the aquaculture of salmon, where microalgae is used to make salmon flesh pinker. This is achieved by the addition of natural pigments containing carotenoids such as Astaxanthin produced from the microalgae Haematococcus to the diet of farmed animals.

Biofuel Production
In order to meet the demands of fossil fuels, alternate means of fuels are being investigated. Biodiesel and bioethanol are two potential renewable fuels that have come to the forefront of research. However, agriculture based renewable fuels may not be completely sustainable and thus may not be able to replace fossil fuels. Microalgae are exceedingly rich in oils(upto 80% dry weight of biomass), which can be converted to fuel. Furthermore, microalgae are more productive than land based agricultural crops and could therefore be more sustainable in the long run. Microalgae for biofuel production is mainly produced using tubular photobioreactors.

Cosmetic and Health Benefits
The main species of microalgae grown as health foods are Chlorella sp. and Spirulina sp. The main forms of production occur in small scale ponds with artificial mixers. Novel bioactive chemical compounds can be isolated from microalgae like sulphated polysaccharides. These compounds include fucoidans, carrageenans and ulvans that are used for their beneficial properties. These properties are anticoagulants, antioxidants, anticancer agents that are being tested in research. Red microalgae are characterised by pigments called phycobiliproteins that contain natural colourants used in pharmaceuticals and/or cosmetics. Production of long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids important for human diet can also be cultured through microalgal hatchery systems.

Biofertilizer
Blue green alga was first used as a means of fixing nitrogen by allowing cyanobacteria to multiply in the soil. Nitrogen fixation is important as a means of allowing inorganic compounds such as nitrogen to be converted to organic forms which can then be used by plants. The use of cyanobacteria has been identified as an economically sound and environmentally friendly method of increasing productivity. Rice production in India and Iran have employed this method of using the nitrogen fixing properties of free living cyanobacteria to supplement nitrogen content in soils.

Other uses
Microalgae are a source of valuable molecules such as isotopes i.e. chemical variants of an element that contain different neutrons. Microalgae can effectively incorporate isotopes of carbon (¹³C), nitrogen (¹⁵N) and hydrogen (²H) into their biomass. ¹³C and ¹⁵N are used to track the flow of carbon between different trophic levels/food webs. Carbon, nitrogen and sulphur isotopes can also be used to determine disturbances to bottom dwelling communities that are otherwise difficult to study.

Issues
Cell frailty is the biggest issue that limits the productivity from closed photobioreactors. Damage to cells can be attributed to the turbulent flow within the bioreactor which is required to create mixing so light is available to all cells.